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Archaeological  Investigations 

IN  THE 

Aleutian  Islands 


by 

WALDEMAR  JOCHELSON 


Published  by  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington 
Washington,  October,  1925 


CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON 
Publication  No.  367 


Q0afftirtove  (prces 

BALTIMORE,  MD.,  U.  S.  A. 


T5?  a. 


CONTENTS. 


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PAGE 

Preface  .  v 

List  of  plates . . . .  vii 

List  of  text-figures .  viii 

Chapter  I. 

Organization  and  personnel  of  the  expedition .  i 

Reasons  for  an  investigation  of  the  Aleut . .  2 

Chapter  II. 

The  Journey  to  the  Aleutians .  n 

Preparations  for  the  journey .  11 

Unalaska  .  13 

Natural  features  of  the  Aleutian  Islands .  19 

Climatic  conditions  .  19 

Chapter  III. 

Excavation  of  ancient  Aleut  village  sites .  21 

Kitchen  middens  . 21 

Excavations  on  Attu .  24 

Excavations  on  Atka .  26 

Excavations  on  the  Island  of  Umnak .  29 

Agla'gax'  village  site .  30 

Nutxa'kax'  village  site .  33 

Ukix  village  site .  33 

Uglu'dax'  .  35 

Excavations  on  Amaknax  Island .  37 

Ama'knax'  site  .  38 

Xata'cxan  site .  38 

Tanaxta'xax'  site  .  39 

Excavations  on  Ukna'dax' .  40 

Chapter  IV. 

Human  remains  in  kitchen  middens .  42 

Chapter  V. 

Archaeological  remains  from  kitchen  middens .  53 

Harpoon  and  throwing  lance .  53 

Source  material  for  stone  implements .  56 

Stone  implements  and  weapons .  59 

Processes  in  working  stone  implements .  67 

Hammer-stones  .  68 

Retouching  stone  implements .  69 

Polishing  stone  implements  . 72 

Stone  and  bone  lamps .  73 

Description  of  bone  implements .  76 

Ornamentation  of  bone  implements .  93 

Labrets  .  96 

Chapter  VI. 

Critical  survey  of  previous  work  in  Aleutian  archaeology .  101 

Chapter  VII. 

Archaeological  and  ethnological  inferences .  m 

Bibliography  .  124 

Glossary  of  Aleut  words .  129 

Index  .  132 

III 


* 


590946 


PREFACE. 


During  the  year  1909-10,  the  author  led  the  anthropological  division  of  the 
Aleut-Kamchatka  Expedition,  sent  out  under  the  auspices  of  the  Imperial  Russian 
Geographical  Society.  Part  of  the  time  spent  in  the  Aleutian  Islands  was  given 
to  archaeological  research,  and  the  results  of  these  investigations  are  presented  in  the 
accompanying  paper.  The  original  manuscript  was  prepared  in  Russian,  was  ready 
for  the  printer  in  1916,  and  was  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Russia, 
where  it  received  the  Akhmatoff  prize.  Its  publication  was,  however,  delayed  because 
of  the  war.  Later,  in  the  autumn  of  1917  when  the  Russian  revolution  broke  out,  the 
office  of  Riaboushinsky  Brothers  in  Moscow,  where  the  manuscript  was  to  be  printed, 
was  destroyed  by  the  mob,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  the  author  succeeded  in 
saving  the  Russian  manuscript,  drawings,  and  maps  from  destruction.  Of  the  plates, 
however,  but  one  copy  of  each  was  saved,  from  which  the  reproduction  used  here 
was  made.  After  reaching  the  United  States  the  author  rewrote  the  manuscript  in 
English  and  added  new  material,  so  as  to  include  a  comparative  study  of  the  Eskimo- 
Aleut  collections  in  America.  To  this  end,  collections  in  the  following  institutions 
were  studied:  the  United  States  National  Museum,  Washington;  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York;  the  Peabody  Museum  of  Harvard  Uni¬ 
versity,  Cambridge;  the  University  Museum,  Philadelphia;  the  Museum  of  the 
American  Indian,  Heye  Foundation,  New  York. 

The  specimens  herein  described  are  on  exhibition  in  the  Ethnographical  Divi¬ 
sion  of  the  Rumiantzeff  Museum  in  Moscow.  The  archaeological  and  ethnographical 
objects  obtained  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  the  Kamchatka  Peninsula  occupy  a 
large  hall  called  the  Riaboushinsky  Hall.  The  anatomical  specimens,  however,  were 
deposited  in  the  Museum  of  the  Anthropological  Institute  of  the  Moscow  University. 
The  plates  for  the  original  manuscript  were  made  in  the  photoartistic  institute  of 
P.  P.  Pavloff  in  Moscow,  from  photographs  taken  by  the  author.  The  drawings  were 
made  in  Moscow  by  the  artists  W.  I.  Kondratyeff,  A.  I.  Warshavsky,  and  P.  S. 
Listchuk.  Mr.  C.  A.  Weckerly,  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  has  also  contributed 
some  redrawings  and  other  artistic  work. 

Acknowledgment  should  be  made  here  to  Professor  W.  L.  Komarov  for  the 
determination  of  the  botanical  specimens  obtained  on  the  islands ;  to  Professor  W.  A. 
Obruchov  for  a  like  determination  of  the  minerals  of  which  the  ancient  Aleut  made 
their  stone  implements  and  weapons ;  to  Professor  N.  M.  Knipovich  for  the  definition 
of  shells  of  mollusks  found  in  the  Aleut  excavations.  The  author  is  under  special 
obligations  to  Professor  Obruchov  for  the  numerous  visits  he  paid  to  the  Rumiantzeff 
Museum  to  study  the  stone  objects  in  the  Aleut  collection,  and  to  Professor  C.  I. 


v 


VI 


Preface. 


Bogdanovich,  who  kindly  revised  the  manuscript  of  the  first  and  last  chapters  of  this 
work  in  so  far  as  they  deal  with  geological  problems. 

In  the  excavations  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  the  author  was  assisted  by  Mrs.  Jochel- 
son,  who  was  also  the  anthropologist  of  the  expedition,  by  A.  M.  YachmenefiF,  the 
Aleut  chief  of  Unalaska  Island,  and  by  L.  I.  Sivtzefif,  the  assistant  priest  of  the  Greek 
Catholic  Church  in  Unalaska. 

Finally,  in  respect  to  the  publication  in  its  present  form,  the  author  is  under 
obligations  to  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York,  for  assistance 
in  the  clerical  work  and  the  revision  of  the  English  translation. 

Waldemar  Jochelson. 


New  York, 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History , 
December  2,  1924. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PLATES. 


PAGE 

1.  Nazan  Bay  and  the  village  on  Atka  Island; 

2,  Excavation  of  the  ancient  village  site, 
Atxa'lax',  on  Atka  Island;  3,  4,  Exca¬ 
vations  of  the  ancient  village  site, 
Nani'kax',  Attu  Island;  5,  Excavation 

of  Uglu'dax'  village  site,  Umnak  Island.  1 

2.  Mollusks:  1,  Venus  petiti  Desh  (Aleut, 

satma'yux')  ;  2,  Saxidomus  nuttali  Conr, 
Saxidomus  squalidus  Desh  (Aleut, 

imu'lux')  ;  3,  Pecten  sp. ;  4,  Cardium 
sp. ;  S,  Litorina  sitchana  Mid.  (Aleut, 
cimka'yux')  ;  6,  Acmaea  patina  Esch. 
(Aleut,  ci'knax')  ;  7,  Katharina  tuni- 
cata  Wood  (Aleut,  kasi'gux',  Attu 
dialect,  qasu'gix')  ;  8,  Mytilus  edulis  L. 
(Aleut,  hwa'yigix')  ;  9,  Triton  cancel- 
latus  Lan .  24 

3.  Excavations  on  Umnak  Island.  1,  section  of 

Pit  3  at  the  Ukix  village  site,  depth 

2.5  meters;  2,  section  of  Pit  2  at  the 
Agla'gax'  village  site,  depth  6.5  meters ; 

3,  bones  of  whales  amid  the  kitchen 

refuse  on  the  ancient  village  site, 
Agla'gax' ;  4,  excavation  of  Pit  2  at  the 
Uglu'dax'  village  site  at  the  beginning 
of  operations;  5,  Aleut  laborers  lunch¬ 
ing  in  the  depression  formed  by  a  former 
underground  dwelling  at  the  Uglu'dax' 
site;  6,  neck  of  land  between  the  bay 
and  a  lake  on  which  was  located  the 
Uglu'dax'  site  .  26 

4.  1,  Drying  skulls  and  other  human  bones  un¬ 

covered  by  the  excavations  on  Umnak 
Island.  In  the  sacks  is  the  party’s  coal 
supply  in  preparation  for  wintering  on 
the  island.  2,  section  of  Pit  4  of  the 
Nani'kax  site,  Attu  Island,  depth,  5 
meters;  3,  section  of  Pit  2,  Umnak  site, 
Umnak  Island,  depth,  2.5  meters .  28 

5.  Excavations  on  Umnak  Island.  1,  section  of 

Pit  3,  Uglu'dax'  Site,  depth,  2.1  meters; 

2,  section  of  Pit  1,  Ukix  site,  depth,  2.3 
meters ;  3,  section  of  Pit  1,  Uglu'dax' 
site,  depth,  3.3  meters .  30 

6.  Section  of  pit  at  the  ancient  village  site 

Xata'cxan,  Ama'knax'  Island,  depth,  5.1 
meters;  2  to  5,  parts  of  section  of  Pit  1 
of  the  Uglu'dax'  site,  Umnak  Island, 
showing  echini  and  mollusk  shells .  32 

7.  1,  Members  of  the  expedition  and  Aleut  lab¬ 

orers  crossing  a  mountain  ridge  on  Attu 
Island ;  2,  camp  at  a  village  site,  Attu 
Island ;  3,  beginning  excavation  of  a  pit 
at  the  Sin  village  site,  Attu  Island;  the 
frame  of  the  roof  is  of  whale-bone; 


PAGE 

4,  a  cave  on  a  small  island  called  Kixsin 
in  Chichagov  Bay,  Attu  Island;  5,  Golt- 
zef  Bay,  Attu  Island ;  6,  a  cave  in  Golt- 
zef  Bay  .  34 

8.  1.  Burial  cave  B,  near  the  Atxa'lax'  site,  Atka 

Island,  before  excavation ;  2,  burial  cave 
C,  near  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island,  before 
removing  the  skeletal  remains;  3,  burial 
cave  C,  after  removal  of  skeletal  re¬ 
mains  ;  4,  location  of  the  ancient  village, 
Atxa'lax'  (A)  and  two  burial  caves  ( B 
and  C ),  Atka  Island;  5,  waterfall  near 
Atxa'lax',  an  ancient  village  site .  36 

9.  1,  Excavations  at  the  ancient  village  site, 

Ama'knax',  situated  on  a  neck  of  land 
on  Ama'knax'  Island ;  2,  bird’s-eye  view 
of  the  neck  of  land  on  Ama'knax' 
Island;  3,  burial  cave  on  Ama'knax' 
Island  investigated  by  Doctor  Dali....  38 

10.  Model  of  section  of  Pit  3  on  ancient  village 

site,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island,  with 
skeleton  discovered  at  depth  of  1.9  me¬ 
ters.  The  model  is  on  exhibition  in  the 
Rumiantzeff  Museum  in  Moscow .  40 

11.  1,  skeleton  found  in  the  excavation  of  the 

Nani'kax'  site,  Attu  Island,  at  depth  of 

1.5  meters;  2,  skeleton  from  the  Agla'¬ 
gax'  site,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth 
of  1.9  meters;  3,  skeleton  from  the 
Ukix  site,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth 
of  1.8  meters ;  4,  skeleton  from  the 
Uglu'dax'  Site,  Umnak  Island,  found 
at  depth  of  1.1  meters .  42 

12.  1,  skeleton  from  Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  found 

at  depth  of  1.2  meters;  2,  skeleton  from 
Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth 
of  1. 1  meters .  46 

13.  1,  skeleton  from  Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  found 

at  depth  of  1.2  meters;  2,  skeleton  from 
Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth 
of  1.2  meters ;  3,  skeleton  of  a  child  from 
Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of 

1.5  meters;  4,  skeleton  from  Natxu'kax', 
Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.7 
meters  .  48 

14.  1,  four  skeletons  found  in  excavation  of  Nani'¬ 

kax',  Attu  Island,  at  depth  of  1.5  meters ; 

2,  five  skeletons  found  in  the  excavation 
of  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island,  at  depth  of 
1.8  meters ;  3,  skeleton  from  Agla'gax', 
Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.5 
meters;  4,  skeleton  from  Tanaxta'xax', 
Ama'knax'  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.3 
meters  . .  52 


VII 


VIII 


Illustrations. 


PLATES— Continued. 


PAGE 

15.  Stone  knives,  adzes,  and  other  stone  imple¬ 

ments.  About  two-fifths  natural  size...  58 

16.  Knives  and  other  implements  of  stone.  About 


two-fifths  natural  size.... .  64 

1 7>  Hammers,  sinkers,  paint-grinders,  and  other 
implements  of  stone.  About  two-fifths 

natural  size  .  66 

18.  Stone  lamps.  About  two-sevenths  natural  size.  72 


19.  1,  2,  stone  lamps ;  3,  bowl  made  from  a  whale’s 
vertebra;  4,  stone  on  which  paints  were 
ground,  a  grinder,  and  pieces  of  ocher. 


About  one-fourth  natural  size .  74 

20.  1,  2,  s,  and  7,  bone  lamps;  3,  4,  8,  and  9,  stone 

lamps ;  10,  bone  mortar  for  grinding 
tobacco.  About  two-sevenths  natural 
size  .  76 

21.  1,  stone  lamp  in  process  of  manufacturing;  2, 

stone  frying-pan  .  76 

22.  Bone  harpoon-heads,  knife-hafts,  adze-handles, 

scrapers,  flakers,  and  other  bone  imple¬ 
ments.  About  two-fifths  natural  size. . .  78 

23.  Bone  heads  of  war  and  hunting  darts  and 


PAGE 


foreshafts  of  harpoons.  About  two- 
fifths  natural  size .  80 

24.  Bone  points  for  throwing-implements,  bird 

darts,  small  harpoons,  and  sections  of 
other  bone  implements.  About  two- 
fifths  natural  size .  84 

25.  Bone  points  for  throwing-implements,  fore¬ 

shafts  of  bow-arrows,  sections  of  fish¬ 
hooks,  and  other  bone  implements. 
About  two-fifths  natural  size .  86 

26.  Bone  spoons,  wedges,  root-diggers,  and  other 

bone  implements.  About  two-sevenths 
natural  size  .  88 

27.  1,  Bone  wedges,  drill-heads,  and  a  bone  adze, 


about  one-third  natural  size ;  2,  bone 
awls  and  a  knife,  about  three-fifths 
natural  size ;  3,  bone  harpoon  heads. 


About  one-half  natural  size .  90 

28.  A,  bone  awls  and  chisels,  about  one-half  natural 
size;  B,  bone  awls  and  needles,  about 
three-fifths  natural  size;  C,  bone  awls. 
About  one-half  natural  size .  92 


TEXT-FIGURES. 


PAGE 


1.  Map  of  Attu  Island .  24 

2.  Map  of  Atka  Island .  27 

3.  Map  of  Umnak  Island .  30 

4.  Map  of  Amaknax  Island .  37 

5.  a.  An  old  Aleut  woman  resting;  b,  A  young 

Aleut  woman  weaving  a  basket .  45 

6.  A  vertical  section  of  burial  cave  C,  Atka 

Island  .  49 

7.  Sections  of  a  simple  harpoon .  55 

8.  a  to  c,  sections  of  a  toggle-headed  harpoon. . .  55 

9.  Sections  of  a  throwing-lance .  55 

10.  Andesite  point  of  a  throwing-spear .  60 

11.  Andesite  point  of  a  throwing-spear .  60 

12.  Hornstone-schist  point  of  a  war  throwing 

spear  .  60 

13.  Point  of  a  war  throwing-spear  of  greenish- 

brown  hornstone  schist . 60 

14.  Point  of  war  throwing-spear  of  andesite .  60 

15.  Andesite  point  with  serrated  edges .  60 

16.  a,  harpoon  point ;  b,  c,  d,  lancets  for  bleeding ; 

e,  f,  g,  h,  points  for  bow-arrows .  60 

17.  Small  curved  knife .  61 

18.  Large  curved  knife .  61 

19.  Large  curved  knife .  61 

20.  Unfinished  point  of  a  throwing-spear .  61 

21.  Unfinished  knife  .  61 

22.  Carving-knife  .  62 

23.  a ,  adze  for  working  wood;  b,  fragment  of  an 

adze  .  62 

24.  a,  b,  adze  with  a  polished  blade;  a,  front, 

b,  side  view .  62 

25.  Small  unfinished  adze . 62 

26.  a  to  c,  chisels  for  planing  wood .  62 

27.  Fragment  of  a  woman’s  tailoring  knife .  63 

28.  Fragment  of  a  woman’s  tailoring  knife  with  a 

wooden  handle  .  63 

29.  Knife  with  serrated  edges .  63 


PAGE 


30.  a,  knife  used  without  a  handle;  b,  transverse 

section  of  middle  part  of  the  knife....  63 

31.  Fragment  of  a  knife .  63 

32.  a,  b,  fragments  of  men’s  knives .  65 

33.  Point  of  a  lance .  65 

34.  a,  implement  for  sawing  small  bones ;  b,  knife 

for  making  bone  needles .  65 

35.  Stone  disk  .  65 

36.  Stone  disk  with  central  perforation;  a,  convex 

side;  b,  flat  side;  c,  transverse  section 
through  middle  .  67 

37.  a-d,  points  for  drills .  67 

38.  Whetstone  for  grinding  and  polishing  bone 

implements  .  68 

39.  Hammerstone  for  working  stone  implements : 

a,  side  view;  b,  transverse  section .  68 

40.  A  core  .  68 

41.  a,  b,  c,  bone  flakers .  70 

42.  Bone  flaker  with  handle .  7° 

43.  Piece  of  sea  lion-skin .  70 

44.  Process  of  retouching  stone  implements .  71 

45.  Foreshaft  of  simple  harpoon .  79 

46.  Foreshaft  of  simple  harpoon .  79 

47.  Bone  knife  .  79 

48.  a,  b,  a,  unknown  bone  implement;  b,  scraper 

for  dressing  bird  skins .  79 

49.  a,  b,  a,  curved  bone  knife;  b,  side  view .  81 

50.  Straight  bone  knife .  81 

51.  Straight  ice  pick  of  a  harpoon .  82 

52.  Curved  ice-pick  of  a  harpoon .  82 

53.  Throwing-lance  for  war .  82 

54.  a,  b,  sections  of  a  throwing-lance  for  war ....  82 

55.  Bone  point  of  fish-spear .  82 

56.  Harpoon-head  .  82 

57.  Foreshaft  of  bow-arrow .  82 

58.  a,  b,  sections  of  bone  fish-hook;  c,  fish-hook, 

entire  .  87 


Illustrations. 


ix 


TEXT  FIGURES — Continued. 


PAGE 


59.  a,  simple  bone  fish-hook ;  b,  a  simple  bone  fish¬ 

hook  in  process  of  manufacture .  87 

60.  a,  b,  both  sides  of  bone  skin-dressing  scraper.  90 

61.  Fragment  of  back-scratcher .  90 

62.  Fragment  of  bone  comb . 90 

63.  Fragment  of  bone  comb .  91 

64.  Fragment  of  back-scratcher .  91 

65.  Bone  mouthpiece  for  bladder .  91 

66.  Albatross  humerus  for  making  needles  and 

awls  .  91 

67.  a  to  h,  a,  b,  needles;  c,  fragment  of  point 

for  fish-spear ;  d  and  f,  awls ;  e,  tooth¬ 
pick  ;  g  and  h,  unfinished  points  for 
fish-hooks  .  91 

68.  Fragment  of  bone  head  for  a  throwing-lance.  92 

69.  Fragments  of  bone  haft  for  stone  knife,  both 

sides  . .  92 

70.  Two  blunt-shaped  heads  of  casting-lances 

for  drilling  .  92 

71.  Fragment  of  a  bone  haft .  92 

72.  a  to  c,  fragments  of  heads  of  throwing- 

lances  .  94 

73.  Fragment  of  bone  haft  for  stone  knife .  94 

74.  a,  b,  fragments  of  bone  implements .  94 

75.  a,  b,  mouthpieces  for  bladdered  harpoons _  94 

76.  A  drumhbone  handle .  94 

77.  Bone  figure  of  a  fish .  94 

78.  Bone  figure  of  some  sea  animal .  94 

79.  a,  b,  stone  figures  of  a  man .  95 

80.  Stone  figure  of  a  whale .  95 


PAGE 


81.  a,  b,  fragment  of  bone  head  of  a  war-lance; 

a ,  side  view;  b,  front  view .  95 

82.  a,  b,  fragments  of  bone  heads .  95 

83.  a,  b,  c,  bone  harpoon  head :  a,  flat  side ;  b,  side 

view;  c,  a  barb .  96 

84.  Marble  labret  . 96 

85.  Marble  labret  .  96 

86.  Fragment  of  marble  labret .  96 

87.  Bone  labret  .  96 

88.  Marble  labret  .  96 

89.  a,  b,  c,  bone  labrets .  97 

90.  a,  b,  c,  bone  labrets .  97 

91.  Stone  shaft-straightener  .  97 

92.  a,  b,  c,  paired  bone  labrets .  97 

93.  a,  b,  bone  sections  of  skin  boat-frame .  97 

94.  Bone  labret  .  98 

95.  Nose  ornament  .  98 

96.  Nose  pendant  .  98 

97.  a  to  d,  nose  pendants . 98 

98.  Bone  ear-ring  .  100 

99.  Nose  or  ear  pendant .  100 

100.  Plug  for  enlarging  labret  perforation .  100 

101.  Sea  lion  tooth .  100 

102.  Bone  buckle  .  100 

103.  a,  bone  ring;  b,  stone  ring .  100 

104.  a,  b,  rings  of  halibut  vertebra .  100 

105.  Marble  stopper  .  100 

xo6.  Shell  of  Telina  calcarea . 100 

107.  Sea-urchin  .  104 

108.  Sea-urchin  without  needles .  104 

109.  Fragment  of  sea-urchin  shell  without  needles.  104 

no.  Split  pieces  of  sea-urchin  shell .  104 


Ethnographic  map  of  Northeastern  Asia  and  Northwestern  America 


132 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  1 


Nazan  Bay  and  the  village  on  Atka  Island.  3>  4-  Excavations  of  the  ancient  village  site,  Nanikax,  Attu  Island 

Excavation  of  the  ancient  village  site,  Atxalax,  on  Atka  Island.  5-  Excavations  of  Ugludax  village  site,  mna  s  an 


CHAPTER  I. 

ORGANIZATION  AND  PERSONNEL  OF  THE  EXPEDITION. 

In  the  fall  of  1907  the  author  was  invited  by  the  Moscow  banker,  F.  P. 
Riaboushinsky,  to  conduct  the  anthropological  work  of  the  so-called  Kamchatka 
Expedition,  which  was  organized  by  Mr.  Riaboushinsky  at  the  suggestion  of  his 
former  teacher,  Professor  A.  A.  Ivanovsky,  of  the  University  of  Moscow. 

The  following  were  the  leaders  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  expedition :  Professor 
Wladimir  L.  Komarov,  Botanical  Division;  Professor  Peter  J.  Schmidt,  Zoological 
Division;  Doctor  W.  A.  Vlassov,  Meteorological  Division;  the  mining  engineers  S.  A. 
Konrady  and  E.  W.  Krug  headed  two  subdivisions  in  geology — Historical  Geology 
and  the  Kamchatka  Volcanoes.  Each  division  had  several  assistants  and  the  expe¬ 
dition  as  a  whole  had  20  scientific  members. 

Toward  the  end  of  1907,  Mr.  Riaboushinsky  requested  the  Imperial  Russian 
Geographical  Society  to  take  the  expedition  under  its  patronage.  The  late  president 
of  the  society,  P.  P.  Semenov-Tyan-Shansky,  warmly  accepted  this  proposal  and 
appointed  a  committee  consisting  of  the  heads  of  departments  of  the  society  and  the 
division  leaders  of  the  expedition,  with  himself  as  chairman.  In  the  work  of  organi¬ 
zation,  the  present  president  of  the  society,  Lieutenant  General  J.  M.  Shokalsky, 
took  an  important  part. 

Aside  from  the  brief  accounts  by  the  leaders  of  the  several  divisions  of  the 
Kamchatka  Expedition  published  in  the  Bulletins  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Geo¬ 
graphical  Society  and  other  scientific  periodicals,  only  one  volume  of  the  expedition 
reports,  that  of  the  Botanical  Division,  by  Professor  Komarov,  has  been  published. 
Preliminary  accounts  of  the  excavations  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  Kamchatka 
were  published  by  the  author  in  the  Bulletins  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Geographical 
Society  (Vol.  XLV,  Part  IX,  1909,  and  Vol.  XLVII,  Parts  I  to  V,  1911)  under  the 
title  “  Letters  of  the  leader  of  the  Ethnological  Division  of  the  Kamchatka  Expedi¬ 
tion  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Geographical  Society.”  The  author 
also  read  two  papers  at  the  Eighteenth  International  Congress  of  Americanists  in 
London  (1912)  :  (1)  The  Aleut  Language  and  its  Relation  to  the  Eskimo  Dialects, 
and  (2)  Scientific  Results  of  the  Ethnological  Section  of  the  Riaboushinsky  Expe¬ 
dition  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Geographical  Society  to  the  Aleutian  Islands  and 
Kamchatka  (Proceedings,  18th  International  Congress  of  Americanists,  pp.  96-194 
and  334-343).  In  the  Bulletins  of  the  Russian  Academy  of  Sciences  (1913,  pp.  133- 
153  and  287-315)  the  author  published  a  critical  article:  “The  Aleut  Language 
in  the  Light  of  Weniaminoff’s  Grammar.” 

1 


2  Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 

REASONS  FOR  AN  INVESTIGATION  OF  THE  ALEUT. 

Thirty-nine  years  ago  ( 1886)  the  author  began  his  ethnological  studies,  spend¬ 
ing  19  years  among  primitive  tribes.  For  10  years  (1886  to  1895)  he  studied  the 
tribes  of  northeastern  Asia  while  living  among  them  as  a  political  exile;  3  years 
(1895  to  1897)  were  spent  in  the  northern  districts  of  the  Province  of  Yakutsk  as 
a  member  of  the  Yakut  Expedition  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Geographical  Society, 
which  was  financed  by  Innocent  Sibiriakofif;  for  3  three  years  (1900  to  1902)  he 
was  engaged  in  the  investigations  of  the  Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition  of  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History  as  a  leader  of  the  Siberian  division  of  that 
expedition.  Finally,  for  3  years  (1909  to  1911)  he  was  leader  of  the  Ethnological 
Division  of  the  Kamchatka  Expedition  referred  to  previously. 

In  the  first  years  of  his  stay  with  the  Siberian  natives,  the  author  became  inter¬ 
ested  in  the  culture  of  the  so-called  Pake-asiatic  tribes.  During  the  Yakut  Expedi- 
dition  he  became  convinced  that  there  were  cultural  and  somatological  connections 
between  the  Pabe-asiatics  and  the  Indians  of  North  America,  and  later,  while  occu¬ 
pied  with  the  Jesup  Expedition,  a  closer  comparative  study  of  the  subject  brought 
to  light  certain  affinities  between  the  cultures  of  the  Palae-asiatics  and  the  tribes  of 
the  North  Pacific  Coast  of  North  America;  but  we  should  point  out  that  the  culture 
of  the  Palse-asiatic  tribes  is  a  complex  of  Asiatic,  Indian,  and  Eskimo  elements. 

The  Asiatic  elements  are :  reindeer  breeding  as  practiced  by  the  nomadic  divi¬ 
sions  of  the  Palse-asiatic  tribes,  Siberian  methods  of  dog  driving,  ancient  pottery  of 
the  Koryak  and  Kamchadal,  and  the  specific  traits  of  Siberian  shamanism.  Indian 
elements  may  be  distinguished  in  the  identity  of  folk-lore,  similarity  in  the  methods 
of  fishing,  in  the  pictographic  writings  of  the  Yukaghir,  in  the  germs  of  clan  organi¬ 
zation  of  the  Yukaghir,  in  the  dug-out  boats  of  the  Yukaghir  and  Kamchadal,  and 
in  bone  armor.  In  addition  to  these  correspondences  in  culture,  we  find  close  somato¬ 
logical  parallels  between  the  Palae-asiatic  tribes  and  the  tribes  of  Alaska  and  Canada. 

Eskimo  elements,  in  their  main  features,  whether  they  originated  in  America 
or  Siberia,  may  be  called  circumpolar,  as  they  are  adaptations  to  natural  conditions 
of  life  in  that  region.  The  specific  Eskimo  features  of  culture  are  sea-hunting,  cer¬ 
tain  ritual  associated  with  sea-hunting,  skin  boats,  tailored  fur  clothing,  the  com¬ 
posite  bow,  snowshoes,  dog-breeding,  harpoons,  and  the  earth  hut.  The  Eskimo  type 
of  pictographic  art  and  realistic  carvings  reach  their  highest  perfection  among  the 
Koryak.  The  loose  social  organization  of  the  Eskimo  tribes  and  of  the  Palse-asiatics 
should  also  be  mentioned ;  also  the  present  primitive  pottery  of  the  Chukchee. 

The  identity  of  the  mythologies  of  the  Siberian  Koryak  and  Kamshadal  and  of 
the  Indians  of  the  northwest  coast  of  America  may  be  evidence  of  former  direct 
cultural  connection  between  these  two  groups.  All  of  these  tribes  look  upon  the 
mythical  Raven  as  a  tribal  ancestor,  as  a  culture  hero,  and  as  a  reformer  of  the 
world;  at  the  same  time,  he  is  described  as  a  trickster  and  as  a  humorous,  lustful, 
and  obscene  mythological  personage.  The  Kamchadal  methods  of  fishing,  in  which 
skin  boats  are  not  employed,  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  northwestern  Indians. 
Thus,  the  common  spiritual  culture,  certain  phases  of  the  material  culture,  as  well 
as  similar  physical  traits,  may  indicate  that  intercourse  between  the  northern 


Organization  and  Personnel  of  Expedition. 


3 


Palae-asiatics  and  the  Indians  of  the  northwest  coast  of  America  is  of  a  very  old 
date.  Later,  the  Eskimo  formed  a  wedge,  as  it  were,  between  these  two,  and  inter¬ 
rupted  the  contact.  The  tip  of  this  wedge  was  held  by  the  Aleut.  However,  little 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  Aleut  problem,  though  comparative  studies  of  the 
Eskimo  in  Alaska  were  carried  on  by  Nelson,  Murdoch,  and  others.  Further,  the 
Aleut  were  not  studied  by  members  of  the  Jesup  Expedition.  In  consequence,  the 
author  proposed  that  the  area  investigated  by  the  Kamchatka  Expedition  be  extended 
to  include  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

The  term  Palce-asiatics  1  was  first  proposed  by  Professor  Schrenk 2  as  the  group- 
name  for  the  Siberian  and  American  tribes  occupying  the  circumpolar  area,  but  this 
grouping  was  not  based  upon  specific  data,  for  there  had  been  no  satisfactory  field 
studies.  The  fusion  of  these  tribes  into  a  single  ethnic  group  was  based  on  assumed 
linguistic  characters  and  on  negative  evidence;  the  scanty  notes  on  the  language  of 
these  peoples  which  were  available  at  that  time  showed  that,  according  to  structure, 
they  could  not  be  classified  with  the  Ural-Altaic  group  of  languages; 3  but  how  far 
the  so-called  Palse-asiatic  languages  were  interrelated,  and  whether  the  tribes  speak¬ 
ing  them  were  anthropologically  kindred  peoples  remained  an  open  question. 
Consequently,  it  was  not  without  reason  that  the  well-known  German  ethnologist, 
Peschel,  called  one  group  of  the  Palae-asiatics  “  Nordasieten  von  umbestimmter 
systematischer  Stellung,,,  thus  confessing  his  inability  to  classify  them.4  Even  now 
we  can  not  make  a  definite  statement  as  to  the  relations  of  the  Yenissei-Ostyak  to  the 
Chukchee,  Koryak,  and  other  northern  Palae-asiatics ;  also,  the  puzzling  question  of 
the  Ainos,  the  pre-Japanese  inhabitants  of  Japan,  is  still  far  from  solution,  although 
such  an  authority  as  the  late  Professor  Baeltz  ascribed  a  Caucasian  origin  to  them.5 

Some  other  attempts  to  classify  the  northeastern  tribes  of  Siberia  should  be 
mentioned.  Friedrich  Muller  calls  them,  on  geographical  grounds,  together  with 
the  Aleut  and  Eskimo,  “  Arctic  or  hyperborean  races,” 6  but  it  is  a  question 
whether  the  Ainos  can  be  called  an  Arctic  tribe.  Moreover,  from  an  anthropological 
point  of  view,  this  classification  is  as  meaningless  as  Schrenk’s  Palae-asiatics. 
Miss  Czaplicka 7  proposed  another  classification,  grouping  them  into  “  Neo- 
Siberians  ”  and  “  Paleo-Siberians  ”  instead  of  the  terms  “  Ural-Altaians  ”  and 

1  The  group  comprises :  the  Chukchee,  Koryak,  Kamchadal,  Yukaghir,  Chuvantzi,  Ainos,  Gilyak,  and  the 
Yenissei  Ostyak.  The  Aleut  and  the  Eskimo  were  also  included  in  this  group. 

2  Leopold  Schrenk,  Die  Volker  des  Amurlandes,  pp.  254-262.  Petersburg,  1871. 

3  We  may  mention  here  some  articles  on  the  languages  of  the  Yukaghir,  Chukchee,  and  Gilyak  published 
by  the  Russian  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  results  of  careful  Work  of  learned  linguists,  based,  however,  on 
materials,  quantitatively  scanty  and  qualitatively  of  little  value,  brought  together  by  casual  and  unqualified  col¬ 
lectors  (officials,  missionaries,  and  naturalists). 

A.  Schiefner,  Ueber  die  Sprache  der  Jukagiren  (Bull.  Hist.  Phil.,  XVI,  1859,  PP-  241-25 3,  and  Mel.  asiat., 
Ill,  pp.  595-612)  :  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  jukagirischen  Sprache  (Bull.  XVI,  1871,  pp.  273-399, 
and  Mel.  asiat.,  VI,  pp.  409-446)  ;  Ueber  Baron  v.  Maydell’s  jukagirische  Sprachproben  (Bull.  XVII, 
1871,  pp.  86-103,  and  Mel.  asiat,  VI,  pp.  600-626). 

L.  Radloff,  Ueber  die  Sprache  der  Tschuktschen  und  ihr  Verhaltniss  zunt  Koriakischen,  St.  Petersburg 
(Memoirs  de  l’Acad.  Ill,  No.  10,  1861). 

Dr.  W.  Grube,  Giljakisches  W brterverzeichniss  nebst  grammatischen  Bemerkungen  (Anhang  zum  III  B.  der 
Reisen  u.  Forschungen  im  Amurlande  v.  Dr.  Leopold  v.  Schrenk,  Lief.  1). 

4  O.  Peschel,  Volkerkunde,  p.  413.  Leipzig,  1876. 

5  E.  Baeltz,  Die  Menschenrassen  Ostasiens  (Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  anthropologischer  Gesellschaft, 
1901,  March,  p.  202)  ;  ibid., Zur  V or-  und  Urgeschichte  Japans  (Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologie,  pp.  287-310.  Berlin,  1907). 

6  F.  R.  Muller,  Allgemeine  Ethno graphie ,  p.  188.  Wien,  1873. 

7  M.  A.  Czaplicka,  Aboriginal  Siberia,  a  Study  in  Social  Anthropology,  Oxford  University  Press,  15.  1914. 


4 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


“  Palse-asiatics.”  Such  a  grouping  was  very  convenient  for  the  special  aims  of  this 
author,  which  were  to  give  a  sociological  survey  of  the  Siberian  population  only. 
Hence,  her  “  Neo-Siberian  ”  group  does  not  include  the  related  tribes  outside  of 
Siberia ;  neither  does  her  “  Paleo-Siberian  ”  group  include  other  indigenous  Asiatic 
peoples,  now  becoming  extinct.  So  in  many  respects,  this  classification  is  less  satis¬ 
factory  than  that  of  Schrenk.  While  it  is  true  that  on  the  basis  of  linguistic,  or 
rather  linguo-psychological,  characters 8  the  Ural-Altaians  form  a  single  ethnic 
group,  this  does  not  fully  meet  the  requirements  of  an  anthropological  classification. 
Again,  “  Neo-Siberian  ”  is  not  a  somatological  term,  and  the  Finnish  tribes  included 
in  this  designation  can  hardly  be  called  “  Neo-Siberians.” 

The  designation  “  Palse-asiatics,”  as  proposed  by  the  late  Professor  Schrenk, 
was  based  chiefly  on  historico-geographical  considerations,  no  account  being  taken 
of  somatological  data.  This  is  also  true  of  the  term  “  Paleo-Siberians.”  On  the 
other  hand,  according  to  Schrenk,  the  so-called  Palse-asiatics  were  driven  to  north¬ 
eastern  Siberia  from  the  south.  In  this  sense  the  name  “  Paleo-Siberians  ”  does  not 
correspond  to  the  term  “  Palse-asiatics,”  for  the  latter,  according  to  the  understand¬ 
ing  of  Professor  Schrenk,  were  not  ancient  dwellers  of  Siberia.  To  avoid  the  inex¬ 
actness  of  both  terms  (Paleo-Siberians  and  Palse-asiatics),9  the  present  author  pre¬ 
fers  another  historico-geographical  term,  that  used  by  Ratzel,  “  die  Rand-Volker  ” 
(marginal  peoples)  which  includes  the  American  Eskimo. 

The  Yakut  Expedition  of  1895  considerably  extended  our  knowledge  of  two 
tribes,  the  Chukchee  and  the  Yukaghir,  in  whose  cultural  development  and  language 
structure  some  Indian  elements  were  found.10 

Later,  the  investigation  of  the  Palse-asiatics  by  the  Jesup  Expedition  was  car¬ 
ried  out  on  a  much  broader  comparative  basis.  The  problems  of  the  investigators 
were  not  only  to  study  the  Palse-asiatic  tribes,  but  to  clear  up  the  ethnological  con¬ 
nections  between  the  natives  of  northeastern  Asia  and  northwestern  America  and 
to  further  the  solution  of  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  American  race.  A  brief 
survey  of  the  phases  through  which  this  question  has  passed  follows: 

It  is  well  known  that  America,  when  discovered,  was  taken  for  India,  and  the 
inhabitants  for  natives  of  India.  Later,  as  its  geographical  position  was  determined, 
the  question  of  the  origin  of  its  inhabitants  arose.  From  the  beginning  they  have 
been  identified  as  immigrants  from  Asia,  Polynesia,  or  Europe,  or  regarded  as 
descendants  of  two  (Mongolian-Malayan)  or  three  (Malay-Mongolian-Caucasian) 
races.  Originally,  these  associations  were  quite  speculative,  but  during  the  course 

8  In  explanation  of  this  term  it  should  be  stated  that  in  the  Semitic  or  Aryan  languages,  for  example,  we 
understand  them  to  be  languages  having  a  common  origin.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  with  the  Ural-Altaian 
group  of  languages,  to  which  we  ascribe  only  common  or  similar  phonetic  and  structural  principles. 

9  The  term  “  Palse-asiatics  ”  may,  besides,  incorrectly  suggest  that  all  the  rest  of  Asiatic  peoples  were  not 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Asia. 

10  See  W.  Bogoras,  “Brief  Account  of  the  Investigation  of  the  Chukchee  of  the  Kolyma  District  (Bulletin 
of  the  East  Siberian  Division  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Geographical  Society,  Vol.  XXX,  part  i,  Irkutsk,  1897)  ; 
idem,  Materials  for  the  Study  of  the  Chukchee  Language  and  Folklore  collected  in  the  Kolyma  District,  part  1, 
edited  by  the  Imperial  Russian  Academy  of  Sciences,  Petrograd,  1900;  W.  Jochelson,  Preliminary  account  of  the 
Investigation  of  the  Natives  of  the  Kolyma  and  Verkhoyansk  Districts  (Bulletin  of  the  East  Siberian  Division  of 
the  Imperial  Russian  Geographical  Society,  Vol.  XXIX,  part  1,  1898)  ;  idem,  Materials  for  the  Study  of  the 
Yukaghir  Language  and  Folklore,  part  1.  edited  by  the  Imperial  Russian  Academy  of  Sciences,  Petrograd,  1900. 


Organization  and  Personnel  of  Expedition. 


5 


of  the  nineteenth  century  more  rational  theories  on  this  subject  appeared.11  In  oppo¬ 
sition  to  these  theories  was  a  new  hypothesis  presented  by  Professor  Ameghino,  the 
South  American  palaeontologist.  In  brief,  he  holds  that  not  merely  the  American 
race,  but  all  mankind,  originated  in  South  America.12  From  the  beginning  European 
anthropologists  took  a  skeptical  position  as  to  this  theory  and  eventually  proved  that 
the  fragments  of  the  skull  upon  which  Ameghino  had  based  his  hypothesis  were 
those  of  a  human  skull  of  the  present  period.13  Lehinann-Nitsche  also  took  a  critical 
attitude  toward  Ameghino’s  theory;  however,  he  regarded  some  of  the  fossil  bones 
of  man  from  South  America  as  belonging  to  the  Pleistocene  period.14  Doctor 
Hrdlicka,  after  a  careful  study  of  the  pseudo-ancient  remains  of  man  in  South 
America,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  in  these  cases  we  are  dealing  with  recent 
bones.15  The  same  is  maintained  by  Doctor  Hrdlicka  with  regard  to  the  skeletal 
remains  of  supposed  ancient  man  in  North  America.16 

It  should  be  noted  that  Doctor  Hrdlicka  had  previously  admitted  that  some  of  the 
skeletal  remains  of  man  in  North  America  might  belong  to  the  Pleistocene  period,17 
but,  after  a  further  study  of  the  subject,  he  changed  his  opinion.  In  his  work  on 
early  man  in  South  America  he  states : 

“  Subsequent  researches,  however,  cleared  up  most  of  the  uncertain  points  and  the  entire 
inquiry  appeared  to  establish  the  fact  that  no  specimen  had  come  to  light  in  the  Northern  con¬ 
tinent,  which,  from  the  standpoint  of  physical  anthropology,  represented  other  than  a  relatively 
modern  man.”  18 

Thus,  it  may  be  said  that  up  to  the  present  time,  neither  in  North  America  nor 
in  South  America  have  remains  of  Tertiary  or  of  Diluvial  man  been  discovered. 
From  what  has  been  said  before,  we  may  conclude  that  man  appeared  in  America 
later  than  in  the  Old  World  and  that  America  can  be  considered  neither  the  cradle 
of  mankind  nor  the  place  of  origin  of  the  American  race.  The  absence  of  anthropoid 
apes  in  America  lends  support  to  the  second  supposition,  even  if  the  polygenetic 
theory  be  admitted. 

If  the  question  of  the  independent  origin  of  the  American  race  is  solved  nega¬ 
tively,  then  the  question  arises:  Whence  and  in  what  geological  period  did  man 
appear  on  American  soil  ?  The  absence  of  Diluvial  remains  of  man  in  America  may 

11  See  A.  Hrdlicka,  Origin  of  the  American  Aborigines,  Historical  Notes  (Amer.  Anthropologist,  vol.  14,  Jan.- 
Mar.,  1912,  p.  5;  idem,  The  Peopling  of  America  (Journal  of  Heredity,  vol.  6,  No.  2,  February  1915,  p.  51). 

12  F.  Ameghino,  Le  Diprothomo  platensis,  un  precurseur  de  I’homme  du  pliocene  inferieur  de  Buenos  Aires 
(Anales  Museo  Nacional,  Buenos  Aires,  XIX,  1909). 

13  See  G.  Steinmann,  Das  Alter  des  Menschen  in  Argentinien  (Ber.  Prahist.  Vers.  Coin,  1908)  ;  L.  Wilson, 
Spuren  des  V ormenschen  aus  Siid-America  (Korr.-Blatt  der  Deutschen  Gesellschaft  fur  Anthropologie,  Ethnolo- 
gie  und  Urgeschichte,  XXXIX  Jahrgang,  1908,  Braunschweig)  ;  G.  Schwalbe,  Studien  zur  Morphologie  der 
Sudamerikanischen  Primatenformen  (Zeitschrift  fur  Morphol.  und  Anthr.,  Band  XIII,  Heft  2,  Stuttgart,  1910, 
pp.  209-258)  ;  M.  Friedmann,  Vorlage  eines  des  Schadeldachs  von  Diprothomo  platensis  Ameghino  (Zeitschrift 
fur  Ethnol.  Berlin,  Heft  6,  19x0)  and  Professor  von  Luschan’s  note  to  Friedmann’s  article.  See  also  Professor 
von  Luschan’s  latest  publication:  V olker,  Rassen,  Sprachen,  Berlin,  1922,  p.  9. 

14  R.  Lehmann-Nitsche,  El  hombre  fossil  pampeano  (Bol.  Ofic.  Nac.  Estad.  La  Paz,  Bolivia,  VI,  1910, 
PP-  363-366)  ;  Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  la  formation  pampeenne  et  I’homme  fossile  de  la  Republique  Argentine 
(Rev.  Mus.  La  Plata,  T.  14,  1907)  ;  Homo  sapiens  und  Homo  neogceus  aus  der  argentinischen  Pampas  formation 
(Verh.  16  Internat.  Amerik.  Kongr.  S.  63,  1909). 

15  A.  Hrdlicka,  Early  Man  in  South  America  (Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  Bull.  52,  Washington,  19x2). 

16  Ibid.,  Skeletal  Remains  Suggesting  or  Attributed  to  Early  Man  in  North  America  (Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology  Bulletin  33,  Washington,  1907). 

17  Ibid.,  The  Crania  of  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  and  their  bearing  upon  the  Antiquity  of  Man  in  that  Region 
(Bulletin  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  XVI,  pp.  23-62,  New  York,  1902). 

18  Ibid.,  Early  Man  in  South  America,  Preface,  p.  v. 


6 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


answer  the  second  part  of  the  question.  The  question  whence  man  came  to  America 
may  be  answered  in  favor  of  Asia.  For  a  mass  migration  convenient  physico- 
geographical  conditions  were  necessary.  Such  conditions  did  not  exist  between 
Europe  and  America  in  the  Pleistocene  period.  The  so-called  Icelandic  bridge  which, 
as  geologists  suppose,  connected  northwestern  Europe  with  northeastern  America 
existed  as  far  back  as  the  Miocene  and  not  later  than  the  Pliocene  period  of  the 
Tertiary  Age,19  when  the  existence  of  man,  even  in  Europe,  is  doubtful,  or  positively 
rejected  by  leading  anthropologists.  Besides,  the  earliest  traces  of  man  found  on 
the  remnants  of  the  former  Icelandic  bridge  still  standing  above  water  or  on  the 
neighboring  shores  may  be  referred  to  the  Azilian  stage,  as  in  Scotland,20  or  to  the 
early  neolithic  period,  as  in  Scandinavia.21 

Immigration  of  Polynesians  in  southern  America  may  have  been  only  acci¬ 
dental  and  then  only  in  recent  times,  when  their  culture  rose  to  the  point  where  skill 
in  navigation  was  sufficiently  developed.  Besides,  some  data  point  to  the  fact  that 
the  Polynesians  may  be  recent  arrivals  in  the  Pacific.22 

Geological  and  palaeontological  data  show  that  Alaska  and  Siberia  were  con¬ 
nected  in  the  middle  of  the  Pleistocene  period,  when  the  mammoth  passed  over  from 
Asia  to  America,  or,  even  toward  the  end  of  the  Pleistocene,  when  the  reindeer,  elk, 
musk-ox,  bison,  mountain  sheep,  and  bears  appeared  in  America.23  According  to 
Dawson,24  man  probably  passed  from  Asia  to  America,  in  pursuit  of  migrating  ani¬ 
mals,  over  the  Asian-American  bridge  or  over  that  vast  continental  plateau  which 
occupied  what  is  now  Bering  Sea,  Bering  Strait,  and  a  part  of  the  Arctic  Sea. 
Professor  K.  I.  Bogdanovich  also  supposes  that  Bering  Strait  was  formed  during 
the  Quaternary  period  at  the  end  of  the  era  of  the  mammoth,  as  a  result  of  a  post- 
Pliocene  sinking  of  the  sea,  and  that  the  final  separation  of  the  Asiatic  and  Ameri¬ 
can  continents  took  place  at  the  beginning  of  Recent  time.25  Proof  of  the  former 
land  connection  between  the  Seward  and  Chukchee  peninsulas  may  be  found  in  the 
similarity  of  rock  structure  on  both  sides  of  Bering  Strait.26 

It  is  natural,  then,  to  anticipate  similarities  between  the  northern  Asiatics  and 
the  American  races.  In  spite  of  great  variety  in  types,  the  American  natives  show 
definite  similarities  to  Asiatics.  New  data  on  this  point  were  sought  by  the  Jesup 
North  Pacific  Expedition,  which,  taking  for  granted  the  migration  of  man  from 
the  Old  World  to  the  New,  had  as  its  objective  a  detailed  comparative  investigation 
of  the  American-Asiatic  tribes  nearest  Bering  Sea.  The  careful  investigation  of 
these  tribes  gave  very  significant  indications  as  to  the  character  of  the  ethnological 

19  See  R.  F.  Scharf,  On  the  Evidence  of  a  Former  Land-Bridge  between  Northern  Europe  and  North 
America  (Proc.  Roy.  Irish  Acad.,  1909,  vol.  XVIII,  Sect.  B.,  pp.  3-28). 

20  See  J.  Anderson,  Proc.  Soc.  Antiq.  of  Scotland,  Vol.  XXIX,  1895,  p.  211. 

21  See  W.  J.  Sollas,  Ancient  Hunters  and  their  Modern  Representatives ,  London,  1911,  p.  379. 

22  See  A.  C.  Haddon,  The  Wanderings  of  Peoples,  Cambridge,  1911 ;  Clark  Wissler,  The  American  Indian,  390. 

23  J.  W.  Gidley,  Paleontological  Evidence  bearing  on  the  Problem  of  the  Origin  of  the  American  Aborigines 
(American  Anthropologist,  vol.  14,  No.  1,  p.  19.  1912). 

24  G.  M.  Dawson,  Geological  Notes  on  some  of  the  Coasts  and  Islands  of  the  Bering  Sea  and  Vicinity  (Bull. 
Amer.  Geol.  Society,  1894,  V.,  pp.  117-146). 

25  C.  I.  Bogdanovich,  Sketches  on  the  Chukchee  Peninsula  (in  Russian),  pp.  152-154.  Petrograd,  1901. 

26  See  Fr.  Immanuel,  Nordwest-Amerika  und  N ordost-Asien  (Petermanns  Mitteilungen,  Band  48,  pp.  4(9-58. 

1902). 


Organization  and  Personnel  of  Expedition. 


7 


connections  between  the  northern  Palse-asiatics,  the  Indians,  and  Eskimo.  The 
mythologies  of  the  Indians  of  the  northwest  coast  of  America  and  the  northern 
Palae-asiatics,  in  outline  and  in  detail,  in  form  and  in  content,  are  so  similar  that 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  their  interdependence.  Many  similarities  were  also 
found  in  their  spiritual  life  as  well  as  in  their  material  culture.27  The  languages  of 
the  northern  Palae-asiatics,  according  to  their  grammatical  structure,  must  be  ranged 
with  American  languages.28  In  physical  type,  also,  the  northern  Palae-asiatics  are 
nearer  to  the  northwestern  Indians  than  to  their  Asiatic  neighbors.  Thus,  we  may 
call  the  northern  Palae-asiatics  the  Americanoid  tribes  of  Siberia. 

Based  on  above  data,  Professor  Boas  made  the  following  inferences : 

“  A  consideration  of  the  distribution,  and  the  characteristics  of  languages  and  human 
types  in  America  and  Siberia,  have  led  me  to  formulate  the  theory  that  the  so-called  Palae- 
asiatic  tribes  of  Siberia  must  be  considered  as  an  offshoot  of  the  American  race,  which  may 
have  migrated  back  after  the  retreat  of  the  Arctic  glaciers.”  29 

The  basic  idea  of  this  hypothesis  is  that  the  American  race  migrated  from 
Asia  to  America  in  one  of  the  interglacial  periods,  then  was  pushed  southward 
by  the  advance  of  the  ice,  and  after  the  retreat  of  the  glaciers  some  of  the  people 
moved  northward  again  and  some  returned  to  Asia.  In  this  manner  may  be 
explained  the  cultural  and  physical  affinities  of  the  Northern  Palae-asiatics 
(Chukchee,  Koryak,  Kamchadal,  and  Yukaghir)  and  the  Indians  of  the  northwest 
coast  of  America. 

The  theory  of  the  Asiatic  origin  of  the  American  aborigines  and  of  the  re¬ 
emigration  from  America  into  Asia  of  the  Siberian  tribes  which  we  call  Ameri- 
canoids,  may  find  a  corroborative  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  distribution  of  certain 
Asiatic  zoological  species.  Professor  Peter  P.  Sushkin,  of  the  Russian  Academy  of 
Sciences,  in  his  paper  “  Outlines  of  the  History  of  the  Fauna  of  Palearctic  Asia,” 
read  April  25,  1925,  before  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Washington,293 
stated : 

“  M.  Severtzoff  and  Professor  Nassonov,  after  studying  the  distribution  and  structure 
of  the  wild  sheep,  have  both  come  to  the  conclusion  that  this  genus  migrated  from  High  Asia 
to  America  before  the  last  glaciation;  that  in  America  they  were  driven  south  by  the  glacia¬ 
tion  ;  that  afterwards  the  American  stock  spread  again  to  the  north  and  gave  origin  to  another 
group;  and  finally  that  this  new  group  spread  back  into  the  Asian  continent  and  occupied 


27  Franz  Boas,  Die  Jesup  Expedition  (Verhandlungen  des  XVI  Internationalen  Americanisten-Kongresses, 
Wien,  1909)  ;  Waldemar  Bogoras,  The  Folklore  of  Northeastern  Asia  (American  Anthropologist,  Vol.  IV,  No.  2, 
1902,  p.  621)  ;  ibid.,  The  Chukchee  (Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition,  Vol.  VIII,  1905-1910).  Waldemar  Jochelson, 
Ueber  Asiatische  und  Amerikanische  Element e  in  den  Mythen  der  Koryak en  (Verhandl.  des  XIV  Internationalen 
Amerikanisten  Kongresses,  Stuttgart,  1904)  ;  The  Koryak,  Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition,  Vol.  VI. 

28  Waldemar  Jochelson,  Essay  on  the  Grammar  of  the  Yukaghir  Language  (Annals  of  the  New  York 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol.  XVI,  part  2,  March,  1905).  Reprinted  as  a  supplement  to  the  American  Anthropologist, 
vol.  7,  No.  2,  1905.  Sternberg,  Bemerkungen  iiber  Beziehungen  zwischen  der  Morphologie  der  Giljakischen  und 
Amerikanischen  Sprachen  (Verhandl.  des  XIV  Internat.  Amerikanisten  Kongresses,  Stuttgart,  1904),  pp.  137-140. 

Waldemar  Bogoras,  Chukchee  Language  (Handbook  of  American  Indian  Languages,  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  Bull.  40,  part  2). 

29  Franz  Boas,  Ethnological  Problems  in  Canada  (Journal  of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Institute,  London, 
1910,  Vol.  XL,  p.  534)  ;  see  also,  Franz  Boas,  The  History  of  the  American  Race  (Annals,  New  York  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Vol.  XXI,  1911,  pp.  177-183,  New  York,  1912). 

29a  See  Science,  May  15,  1925. 


8 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Eastern  Siberia,  so  that  the  present  Siberian  sheep  stand,  geographically  and  structurally,  in 
no  close  relation  with  the  sheep  of  High  Asia.” 

The  Eskimo,  to  which  stock  the  Aleut  belong,  should  be  given  special  consid¬ 
eration  here;  despite  some  specific  characters  which  differentiate  them  from  the 
Indians,  they  are  considered  as  a  division  of  the  American  race.  At  present,  the 
Alaskan  and  Siberian  Eskimo  separate  the  Northwestern  Indians  from  the  Palae- 
asiatics.  We  believe  that  the  Eskimo  recently  came  from  the  east  and  interrupted 
the  relations  of  the  Palae-asiatics  and  Indians.  In  a  certain  sense  this  supposition 
may  be  contradictory  to  the  generally  recognized  views  on  the  Eskimo,  but  we  must 
distinguish  two  periods  in  the  Eskimo  migrations — a  recent  and  an  ancient  one. 

At  a  time  when  the  data  for  an  Asiatic  origin  of  the  American  race  were  not  so 
well  worked  out  as  they  are  now,  Rudolf  Virchow,  basing  his  opinion  on  measure¬ 
ments  made  on  a  small  number  of  Greenland  and  Labrador  Eskimo,  expressed  his 
belief  as  to  their  Mongoloid  origin,  despite  their  dolichocephalic  head  indices.30 
Schrenk,  based  chiefly  on  historico-geographical  considerations,  ranks  the  Eskimo 
among  the  Palae-asiatic  tribes.31 

Wrangel  says: 

“  There  are  traditions  which  relate  that  two  centuries  ago  the  Onkilon  occupied  the  whole 
of  the  Arctic  coast  from  Cape  Shelagskoi  to  Bering  Strait,  and  it  is  true  that  there  are  every¬ 
where  along  this  tract  the  remains  of  huts  constructed  of  earth  and  whalebones  and  quite  differ¬ 
ent  from  the  present  dwellings  of  the  Chukchee.”  32 

Bogoras  also  recognizes  the  fact  that  on  the  Arctic  coast  there  was  previously 
more  of  the  Eskimo  element,  which,  little  by  little,  became  assimilated  with  the 
Chukchee.  Some  of  the  names  of  the  present  Chukchee  villages  on  the  Arctic  shore 
can  be  explained  only  on  the  basis  of  the  Eskimo  language.33  The  Danish  investi¬ 
gator  of  Greenland,  Doctor  Thalbitzer,34  expressed  his  belief  that  the  Eskimo  came 
to  America  from  Siberia. 

To  the  number  of  adherents  of  the  hypothesis  that  the  Eskimo  migrated  to 
America  from  Siberia,  many  names,  both  old  and  new,  may  be  added,  such  as 
Chamisso,  Litke,  Weniaminoff,  Patkanoff,  and  many  others.  If  we  regard  the 
Eskimo  as  a  division  of  the  American  race,  this  hypothesis  is  quite  in  accord  with 
the  theory  of  the  Asiatic  origin  of  the  aboriginal  American  population  in  general. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  meet  with  the  opposite  opinion.  Thus  Billings,  Klaprot, 
Rink,  Dali,  and  Boas  believe  the  Eskimo  went  to  Siberia  from  America.  One  of  the 
latest  investigators  of  the  Eskimo,  V.  Stefansson,  states  that  “  the  Eskimo  appeared 
in  Alaska  from  the  east  and  have  reached  Bering  Strait  comparatively  not  far  back, 
probably  less  than  a  thousand  years  ago.85 


30  R.  Virchow,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethnologie,  Band  XII,  1880. 

131  Schrenk,  Die  Volker  des  Amur-Landes,  Band  III,  p.  249. 

32  Wrangel,  Voyage,  etc.,  p.  357,  Under  “  Onkilon”  Wrangel  understands  “Eskimo,”  but  actually  it  means 
“  Coast  dweller.”  (See  Jochelson,  The  Koryak,  p.  463.) 

33  Bogoras,  The  Chukchee,  p.  22. 

34  William  Thalbitzer,  The  Amassalik  Eskimo,  p.  717,  Copenhagen,  1914. 

35  V.  Stefansson,  On  Eskimo  Work,  1908-1912.  (Summary  Rept.  Geological  Survey  Canada,  1912,  p.  488.) 


Organization  and  Personnel  of  Expedition. 


9 


These  controversies  concerning  Eskimo  migrations  may  be  reconciled,  for 
undoubtedly  migrations  of  some  Eskimo  divisions  from  America  to  Siberia,  and 
vice  versa,  could  and  actually  did  occur  under  present  geological  conditions.  The 
migrations  mentioned  above  took  place  in  the  not  far  distant  past.  Another  hypo¬ 
thesis  concerning  Eskimo  migrations  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New,  in  remote 
prehistoric  times,  is  that  of  Professor  Boyd  Dawkins,  who  connects  them  with  man 
of  the  Magdalenian  period  in  Europe,  basing  his  opinion  on  the  similarity  of  their 
realistic  art  in  carving  and  engraving  human  and  animal  figures.36 

Some  ethnologists  are  returning  to  this  hypothesis.  Of  special  interest  in  this 
connection  is  Sollas’s  marshaling  of  cultural  parallels  and  anatomical  data  to  prove 
his  case.  According  to  his  theory,  two  races  of  long-headed  men  of  the  Magdalenian 
period  emigrated  from  the  Old  World  through  Asia  to  America.  From  one  race 
of  high  stature,  the  Cro-Magnon,  the  Algonkin  division  of  Indians  originated;  from 
the  other,  that  of  Dordogne,  people  of  low  stature,  the  Eskimo  originated.37 

From  what  has  been  said  before,  the  points  on  which  the  Aleut,  a  tribe  of  the 
Eskimo  stock,  need  investigation  may  be  surmised.  As  we  shall  see  in  Chapter  VII, 
the  same  differences  of  opinion  existed  concerning  the  Aleut  as  of  the  entire  Eskimo 
stock.  The  aims  of  the  Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition  were  to  study  a  certain  chain 
of  Asiatic  and  American  tribes,  in  order  to  clear  up  their  former  history,  their  con¬ 
nections  among  themselves,  and  their  relations  to  neighboring  tribes.  The  Aleut 
formed  one  of  the  missing  links  of  that  chain.  The  investigation  of  the  Aleut,  and 
particularly,  the  investigation  of  their  prehistory,  so  far  as  this  can  be  carried  for¬ 
ward  through  excavations  of  ancient  village  sites,  will  throw  some  light  on  questions 
referring  to  remote  times  and  to  ancient  ethnical  relations.  Thus,  the  investigation 
of  the  connections  between  the  Americanoid  tribes  of  Asia,  the  Northwestern  Indians, 
and  the  Eskimo  may  help  to  clear  up  the  migration  question. 

Leading  anthropologists  regard  the  whole  of  mankind  as  belonging  to  one 
species :  Homo  sapiens.  Although,  up  to  the  present  time,  fossil  remains  of  ancient 
man  have  been  discovered  only  in  Europe,  Asia  has  been  looked  upon  as  the  place 
of  man’s  origin.  Asia  was  the  place  of  origin  of  higher  civilizations,  the  domestica¬ 
tion  of  animals,  and  the  cultivation  of  plants.38 

Before  the  appearance  of  man  Asia  is  believed  to  have  been  the  cradle  of  evolu¬ 
tion  and  the  center  of  animal  dispersion  both  westward  and  eastward.30 

Professor  von  Luschan,  though  acknowledging  the  hypothesis  that  the  Ameri¬ 
can  continent  was  peopled  by  immigration  from  northeastern  Asia,  believes,  how¬ 
ever,  that  the  physical  type  of  some  American  tribes  may  have  been  influenced  to  a 
certain  degree  by  Scandinavian  navigators,  who  probably  reached  the  northeastern 

86  Boyd  Dawkins,  Die  Hollen  und  die  Urbewohner  Europas  (translated  from  English),  1876,  p.  224.  See 
also  W.  J.  Hoffman,  The  Graphic  Art  of  the  Eskimo  (Report,  U.  tS.  National  Museum,  Washington,  1897),  p.  764. 

37  W.  J.  Sollas,  Ancient  Hunters  and  their  Modern  Representatives,  London,  1911,  pp.  370-383. 

38  See,  e.  g.,  K.  Keller,  Die  H'austiere,  in  Hans  Kremer’s,  “  Der  Mensch  und  die  Erde,”  Vol.  I,  p.  181.  1905. 

39  H.  F.  Osborn,  Proving  Asia  the  Mother  of  Continents  (Asia,  The  American  Magazine  on  the  Orient, 
Vol.  XXII,  No.  9,  pp.  721-724.  1922). 


10 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


coast  of  America  in  very  remote  times.40  But  in  our  opinion  accidental  visits  of 
North  European  adventurers  could  hardly  affect  the  somatology  of  Indian  tribes. 

The  high  cultures  of  Mexico  and  Central  America  do  not  interfere  with  the 
theory  of  the  Asiatic  origin  of  the  American  population.  It  is  now  generally  admitted 
that  America  was  originally  populated  from  Asia  on  a  culture-level  no  higher  than 
the  Neolithic  and  that  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  ceramics,  weaving,  and  culti¬ 
vation  of  plants  were  independently  invented  long  after  the  original  settlement. 

Not  long  ago,  Doctor  Hrdlicka  took  up  the  task  of  investigating  the  direct  rela¬ 
tions  between  the  American  population  and  the  Mongol  tribes  of  Asia,  thus  enlarg¬ 
ing  the  scope  of  the  investigations  by  the  Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition.  Such  an 
enterprise  is  very  welcome,  but  up  to  the  present  time  Doctor  Hrdlicka’s  published 
statements  give  only  general  impressions  of  the  types  of  local  populations  received 
in  the  course  of  his  travels  in  1912  over  Transbaikalia  and  Northern  Mongolia. 
Based  on  these  observations,  Doctor  Hrdlicka  advanced  the  following  opinion: 

“  There  exist  to-day  over  large  parts  of  Eastern  Siberia,  and  in  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and  other 
regions  in  that  part  of  the  world,  numerous  remains,  which  now  form  constituent  parts  of  more 
modern  tribes  or  nations,  of  a  more  ancient  population  (related  in  origin  perhaps  with  the 
latest  Palaeolithic  European),  which  was  physically  identical  with  and  in  all  probability  gave 
rise  to  the  American  Indian.”  41 

Judging  by  the  citation  from  Doctor  Hrdlicka,  he  connects  the  American  race 
not  with  the  Mongoloid  or  other  East  Asiatic  tribes,  but  with  those  Palse-asiatic 
tribes  which  entered  into  the  formation  of  the  former.  In  that  way,  while  the  Jesup 
Expedition  built  a  bridge  between  the  Indians  and  the  Palse-asiatic  tribes  of  north¬ 
eastern  Siberia,  Doctor  Hrdlicka  strives  to  establish  a  close  relation  between  the 
American  race  and  the  Palse-asiatic  elements  now  diffused  among  the  present  East 
Asiatic  nations.  To  that  end  it  is  necessary  to  establish  scientifically  the  proposed 
Palse-asiatic  elements.  Such  an  intricate  problem  can  not  be  solved  by  a  local  anthro¬ 
pological  investigation,  and  certainly  not  by  an  exclusively  anthropological  investi¬ 
gation,  but  in  a  detailed  and  many-sided  study  of  the  tribes  of  Eastern  Asia  with 
reference  to  their  prehistory,  somatology,  and  ethnology.  The  conclusion  to  Doctor 
Hrdlicka’s  paper  may  be  cited  here: 

“  The  task  of  learning  the  exact  truth  remains  for  the  future.  In  relation  to  opportunities 
for  further  investigation,  the  author  has  satisfied  himself  that  the  field  for  anthropological  and 
archaeological  research  in  eastern  Asia  is  vast,  rich,  to  a  large  extent  still  virginal,  and  probably 
not  excessively  complicated.  It  is  surely  a  field  which  calls  for  close  attention  not  only  on  the 
part  of  European  students  of  the  Far  East,  but  especially  on  the  part  of  the  American  investi¬ 
gator  who  deals  with  the  problems  of  the  origin  and  immigration  of  the  American  Indian.” 


40  Felix  von  Luschan,  Volker,  Rassen,  Sprachen,  Berlin,  p.  21.  1922. 

41  A.  Hrdlicka,  Remains  in  Eastern  Asia  of  the  Race  that  peopled  America  (Smithsonian  Miscellaneous 
Collections,  vol.  60,  No.  16,  Washington,  1912).  See  also  by  the  same  author,  “  Restes  dans  I’Asie  orientale  de  la 
Race  qui  a  peuple  I’Amerique  (Congres  International  d’Anthropologie  et  d’archeologie  prehistorique,  Compte 
Rendu  de  la  XIV  Session,  Geneve,  1912). 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  JOURNEY  TO  THE  ALEUTIANS. 

For  reasons  to  be  detailed  below,  the  Ethnological  Division  of  the  Kamchatka 
Expedition  began  its  work  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  not  in  Kamchatka  with  the 
rest  of  the  party.  To  work  in  Kamchatka  simultaneously  with  the  other  divisions 
of  the  expedition  would  have  added  to  the  difficulties  of  travel  and  transportation 
by  dog-team  and  horses,  neither  of  which  was  easily  obtainable.  Then,  too,  the  Aleu¬ 
tian  Islands  are  not  readily  accessible  from  Kamchatka,  there  being  no  boat  service 
between  Kamchatka  and  the  Aleutians.  So  our  only  means  of  reaching  them  was 
by  way  of  the  United  States.  It  was  necessary,  too,  to  obtain  assistance  from  Ameri¬ 
can  scientific  institutions  and  permission  to  work  on  the  islands  from  the  United 
States  Government.  Consequently,  the  members  of  the  Ethnological  Division  set  out 
from  Petrograd  for  the  United  States,  visiting  England  en  route. 

PREPARATIONS  FOR  THE  JOURNEY. 

We  arrived  in  New  York,  October  i,  1908,  and  left  for  San  Francisco  on 
November  21.  With  the  exception  of  a  10  days’  visit  to  Washington,  the  entire 
period  was  spent  in  New  York  in  preparing  for  the  expedition,  in  purchasing  stores, 
instruments,  books,  and  all  the  impedimenta  of  a  long  voyage.  This  preliminary 
work  was  carried  on  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  where  the  author 
was  able  to  make  liberal  use  of  its  library.  The  museum  also  placed  an  office  at  our 
disposal  and  rendered  assistance  in  the  packing  and  transportation  of  our  equipment. 
For  this  kind  hospitality  acknowledgment  is  made  to  the  president  of  the  American 
Museum,  Professor  Henry  Fairfield  Osborn;  its  former  director,  Doctor  H.  C. 
Bumpus,  and  the  curator  of  the  Department  of  Anthropology,  Doctor  Clark  Wissler. 

As  before  stated,  it  was  necessary  to  obtain  permission  to  excavate  on  the  Aleu¬ 
tian  Islands;  to  apply  to  the  United  States  Treasury  Department  for  leave  to  use 
the  vessels  of  the  Revenue  Service  in  transportation  from  one  island  to  another; 
and  to  ask  permission  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor  to  land  on 
the  seal  islands  of  the  Pribilof  group,  to  make  ethnological  and  anthropological 
observations. 

The  negotiations  to  obtain  the  necessary  permits  were  carried  on  by  the  Im¬ 
perial  Russian  Geographical  Society  through  the  Russian  secretary  of  state,  and, 
due  to  the  kind  offices  of  the  Russian  ambassador  in  Washington,  these  permits  were 
granted. 

Doctor  Charles  D.  Walcott,  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  who 
must  approve  all  permits  before  they  are  issued,  not  only  added  his  sanction,  but  the 

11 


12 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  having  planned  an  expedition  to  the  Aleutians, 
withdrew  in  our  favor.  Professor  W.  H.  Holmes,  then  chief  of  the  Bureau,  kindly 
gave  the  writer  access  to  all  correspondence  on  the  subject,  from  which  it  became 
clear  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  bureau  the  author  was  competent  to  conduct  the  work 
on.  the  Aleutians  and  that  two  expeditions  were  unnecessary.  It  may  be  added  that 
the  American  authorities  raised  no  objections  to  exporting  the  specimens  found 
during  the  excavations. 

En  route,  we  visited  San  Francisco  to  study  the  Aleutian  collections  in  the 
Anthropological  Museum  of  the  University  of  California;  also  to  secure  the  assis¬ 
tance  of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  which  had  agents  both  in  Alaska  and 
the  Aleutians.  Thanks  to  the  kindness  of  Professor  A.  L.  Kroeber,  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  California,  the  author  had  opportunity  to  examine  the  Aleutian  Island  col¬ 
lections.  The  Director  of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  Mr.  Schloss,  kindly 
furnished  us  with  letters  of  introduction  to  the  agents  of  the  company,  and  from 
him  also  we  obtained  a  letter  of  credit. 

We  left  San  Francisco  by  rail  on  November  30  and  reached  Seattle  on  Decem¬ 
ber  1,  whence,  on  December  8,  1908,  we  sailed  on  the  Santa  Clara  of  the  Alaska 
Steamship  Company.  Our  destination  was  Seward,  a  village  on  the  Kenai  Penin¬ 
sula,  whence  it  was  possible  to  reach  Unalaska  by  the  small  mail-steamer  which 
covered  this  route  monthly.  We  arrived  in  Seward  on  December  15,  on  which  date 
the  mail  steamer,  Dora ,  was  expected  to  sail  for  Unalaska.  Though  we  had  been 
advised  against  a  winter  trip  on  Bering  Sea,  we  preferred  to  winter  in  Unalaska, 
so  that  we  could  become  acquainted  with  local  conditions  and,  in  addition,  arrange 
for  transportation  to  the  other  islands  during  the  summer.  It  had  been  impossible 
to  obtain  exact  information  as  to  the  means  of  communication  between  the  islands, 
labor  conditions,  and  other  practical  questions  concerning  our  proposed  work,  even 
from  some  former  Alaskan  Government  officials  we  had  met  in  Washington.  Some 
information  had  been  obtained  from  Professor  T.  A.  Jaggar,  then  of  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  Institute  of  Technology,  who,  the  previous  year,  had  studied  the  volcanoes  of 
the  Aleutians. 

The  Santa  Clara  followed  the  route  through  the  so-called  Inside  Passage  of 
the  straits  between  the  islands  offi  the  coast  of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska  and  the 
mainland.  We  had  a  very  quiet  passage  to  Juneau.  To  our  regret,  we  did  not  touch 
at  Baranof  Island  and  thus  had  no  opportunity  to  visit  Sitka,  the  former  capital  of 
Russian-American  territory.  Russian  influence  appears  to  have  been  stronger  at 
Sitka  than  at  any  other  point  in  Alaska.  During  the  summer  months  numerous  tour¬ 
ists  take  the  trip  through  the  Inside  Passage,  where  are  combined  the  beauties  of 
Scandinavian  fjords,  Alpine  mountains,  imposing  waterfalls,  and  snow-crowned 
peaks  with  ice-clad  slopes. 

From  Juneau  we  passed  out  into  the  open  sea  and  were  at  once  agreed  that 
“  Pacific  ”  was  a  misnomer  for  the  northern  portion  of  the  ocean,  particularly  in 
winter.  We  stopped  at  several  points  and  after  a  very  stormy  passage  reached 
Seward  December  17,  1908. 


The  Journey  to  the  Aleutians. 


13 


The  Santa  Clara  was  a  small  freight  steamer  with  good  cabins.  In  spite  of  the 
season,  the  cabins  were  all  occupied — engineers,  traders,  officials,  laborers,  and  gold 
hunters  made  up  the  passenger  list.  Some  passengers  left  the  steamer  in  Juneau  to 
start  to  the  Yukon  River  with  mail-horses;  others  went  from  Valdez  to  the  mines  of 
Fairbanks,  Klondike,  and  other  mining  districts.  During  the  winter,  Nome,  on  the 
Seward  Peninsula,  may  be  reached  from  Valdez  by  dog-team.  We  had  our  first  view 
of  an  Alaskan  dog-team  in  Valdez.  The  Alaskan  method  of  harnessing  dogs  is  very 
efficient.  Everywhere  we  saw  fisheries  and  canneries  closed  down  for  the  winter. 

The  mail  steamer  Dora,  which,  according  to  the  schedule,  was  to  await  us  at 
Seward,  did  not  appear,  having  been  sent  for  inspection  to  San  Francisco.  Instead, 
a  freighter,  Faralon,  was  substituted.  This  steamer  left  Seattle  simultaneously  with 
the  Santa  Clara,  loaded  with  benzine  and  explosives  and  carrying  no  passengers, 
and  arrived  at  Seward  7  days  later.  We  left  Seward  December  24,  1908,  and  arrived 
in  Unalaska  on  January  3,  1909.  In  summer  this  is  a  trip  of  only  3  days.  We  had  a 
very  stormy  passage.  The  Faralon  was  a  river  boat,  not  at  all  suitable  for  ocean 
waters,  and  yet,  with  the  exception  of  the  passage  through  Shelikhof  Strait,  between 
Kodiak  Island  and  the  Alaska  Peninsula,  it  sailed  the  open  sea.  A  storm  delayed  us 
3  days  at  Kodiak  Island  and  gave  us  an  opportunity  to  visit  Kodiak  village,  where 
we  found  an  old  orthodox  church  and  a  school  maintained  by  the  Holy  Russian 
Synod. 

During  the  last  2  days  of  our  voyage  the  poop  and  mast  were  broken  and  we 
proceeded  through  Akutan  Pass  under  extreme  difficulty.  Just  before  entering 
Unalaska  Bay  the  weather  calmed.  The  snowy  summits  of  the  bay,  the  precipitous 
rocky  shores,  and  the  smoking  volcano  Makushin  presented  a  sublime  and  majestic 
spectacle.  We  went  first  to  Dutch  Harbor,  on  Amaknak  Island,  lying  in  the  middle 
of  Unalaska  Bay.  Here  were  the  headquarters  of  the  North  American  Commercial 
Company,  the  lessees  of  the  Pribilof  Islands. 

After  leaving  Seward  we  had  few  fellow-travelers.  Two  left  for  Kodiak,  three 
for  Unga,  the  largest  island  of  the  Shumagin  group,  and  we  were  the  only  passen¬ 
gers  for  Unalaska.  At  that  season  of  the  year  only  absolute  necessity  leads  one  to 
make  the  trip  and  it  is  only  to  carry  out  a  mail  contract  that  the  steamship  company 
maintains  communication  between  Unalaska  and  the  mainland.  A  month  later  the 
Faralon  was  completely  wrecked  on  the  rocky  shores  of  Kodiak  Island. 

UNALASKA. 

In  Unalaska  we  were  very  kindly  received  by  Mr.  N.  Gray,  the  Alaska  Com¬ 
mercial  Company  agent,  who  put  one  of  the  company  storehouses  at  our  disposal 
gratis  and  recommended  that  we  hire  the  house  of  the  late  Russian  priest, 
Shayeshnikov. 

A  more  complete  description  of  life  in  Unalaska  will  appear  elsewhere,  but  the 
following  will  present  the  general  setting  for  our  future  activities.  Unalaska,  the 
village,  known  also  by  its  Aleut  name,  Uiuliuk,  is  the  principal  settlement  on  the 
island  of  that  name.  It  was  founded  by  Solovyov  between  1660  and  1670.  In  1909 


14 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


it  had  a  population  of  281.  Of  that  number  242  were  Aleut  and  39  whites  or 
“  strangers,”  chiefly  Americans.  The  village  is  situated  on  a  narrow  sandbar  between 
a  rivulet  and  the  bay.  In  the  village  were  a  Greek  Catholic  church,  a  Russian  home 
for  Aleut  boys,  a  Methodist  mission  home  for  Aleut  and  Eskimo  boys  and  girls,  and 
a  Government  elementary  school  which  the  children  living  in  both  homes  were 
obliged  to  attend.  Of  American  officials,  there  were  the  United  States  marshal, 
Mr.  Harman;  the  superintendent  of  the  Government  school  and  commissioner, 
Mr.  Brown;  the  custom-house  officer,  a  Russian-Tlingit,  born  in  Sitka,  Mr.  Bol- 
shanin,  and  the  mail  clerk,  Miss  Wagner.  The  Rev.  Nicholas  Rissov  was  the  priest 
of  the  Russian  church ;  he  was  born  in  Sitka,  in  the  family  of  a  Russian  official.  Of 
Russians  who  became  American  citizens  after  the  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United 
States,  there  were  two  sons  of  the  late  Russian  priest,  Shayeshnikov,  and  the  son-in- 
law  of  the  Reverend  Rissov.  In  the  Russian  home  for  children  was  a  teacher  recently 
arrived  from  Russia.  The  representatives  from  other  European  countries  in  the 
village  were  two  Germans,  one  Norwegian,  one  Dane,  and  one  Swede.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Swede,  Nyuman,  who  was  married  to  the  daughter  of  the  late 
Russian  priest,  all  the  other  Europeans  had  Aleut  wives.  The  superintendent  of  the 
Methodist  mission  home  was  Doctor  Spence,  missionary  and  surgeon;  four  Ameri¬ 
can  women,  including  Mrs.  Spence,  taught  in  the  home.  In  the  Government  school, 
besides  the  superintendent,  were  two  women  teachers.  Others  in  the  village  were 
Captain  Applegate  and  his  family.  Captain  Applegate  was  at  one  time  United  States 
Signal  Service  recorder,  but  at  the  time  of  our  visit  was  engaged  in  sea-otter  hunt¬ 
ing.  In  Dutch  Harbor  lived  Mr.  Schroter,  the  manager  of  the  North  American 
Commercial  Company,  and  two  American  clerks. 

We  established  ourselves  for  work  in  Unalaska  until  the  spring.  The  question 
of  means  of  transportation  between  the  islands  during  the  summer,  however,  caused 
us  much  worry,  there  being  no  regular  communication.  Once  a  year  the  Alaska 
Commercial  Company  sent  a  schooner  carrying  merchandise  to  Atka  and  Attu.  In 
former  years,  Mr.  Dirks,  a  German  from  Hamburg,  who  in  his  youth  was  a  sailor 
and  later  engaged  in  trade  with  the  Aleut,  used  to  take  a  small  schooner  to  Atka. 
But  since  his  retirement  he  had  sold  his  schooner.  Mr.  Lee,  the  Dane,  also  had  a 
small  sailing  schooner  which  he  used  for  trading  in  the  islands  nearest  to  Unalaska. 
He  was  willing  to  take  us  to  Atka,  but  aside  from  the  danger,  this  would  have 
entailed  great  loss  of  time,  since  sailing  to  the  west  in  summer  would  have  been 
checked  by  contrary  winds. 

When  in  New  York  another  plan  for  transportation  had  been  formulated.  In 
cooperation  with  Dr.  T.  A.  Jaggar,  jr.,1  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech¬ 
nology,  on  behalf  of  the  Geological  Survey,  and  Dr.  A.  H.  Brooks,  of  the  Alaska 
division  of  the  survey,  it  had  been  agreed  that  we  jointly  hire  a  sailing  vessel  with 
auxiliary  motor  to  carry  us  to  the  western  islands.  But  all  inquiries  led  to  the  con¬ 
clusion  that  such  a  craft  was  unfitted  for  a  voyage  in  Bering  Sea,  while  the  cost  of 
a  steamer  was  prohibitive.  After  various  other  unsuccessful  attempts  to  obtain 

1  Doctor  Jaggar  is  at  present  the  volcanologist  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  and  director  of  the  Hawaiian 
Volcano  Observatory  at  Kilauea. 


The  Journey  to  the  Aleutians. 


15 


transportation,  we  learned  that  the  Geological  Survey  had  been  obliged  to  postpone 
its  expedition  to  the  islands.  Thus  we  were  left  to  depend  on  our  own  resources,  so 
far  as  transportation  was  concerned. 

Finally,  the  following  arrangements  were  made :  In  March  a  new  sailing  vessel 
of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company  was  expected  to  arrive  from  Kodiak.  We 
planned  to  sail  on  her  to  Attu  Island  and  in  July  a  revenue  cutter  could  carry  our 
party  from  Attu  to  Atka.  Captain  Applegate,  in  September,  would  take  us  from 
Atka  to  Umnak,  where  we  intended  to  spend  the  winter  of  1909-10,  and  at  the  end 
of  April  of  that  year  Captain  Applegate  would  take  us  back  to  Unalaska.  As  he 
usually  spent  the  winter  in  Unalaska,  starting  in  the  spring  for  Umnak  to  take  on  his 
schooner  the  Umnak  people  and  their  skin  boats  in  order  to  carry  them  to  places  where 
sea  otters  can  be  hunted;  this  would  necessitate  one  special  trip  for  our  expedition. 
He  was  an  educated  man  and  was  sympathetic  toward  our  scientific  work.  Our  pro¬ 
posed  route  included  all  the  inhabited  western  Aleutian  Islands,  since  we  wished  to 
combine  excavations  of  old  village  sites  with  an  investigation  of  the  ethnology  of  the 
Aleut.  To  our  regret,  it  was  necessary  to  abandon  our  original  plan*  to  excavate  on 
the  islands  uninhabited  at  the  time  of  our  visit. 

The  schooner  expected  in  March  by  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company  did  not 
arrive  until  June.  We  employed  this  period  of  waiting  in  a  study  of  the  Aleut  lan¬ 
guage  and  in  recording  myths  and  tales.  We  could  not  leave  Unalaska,  even  for  a 
short  trip,  for  fear  of  missing  the  schooner,  thus  losing  the  opportunity  to  visit  the 
Aleut  of  the  Alaska  Peninsula  or  the  Shumagin  Islands. 

About  the  end  of  May  the  northern  portions  of  Bering  Sea  became  free  of  ice, 
and  passenger  vessels  and  freighters  entered  Unalaska  Harbor  on  their  way  north. 
Many  whalers  also  appeared,  also  a  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor  steamer 
with  freight  for  the  Pribilof  Islands.  We  were  told  then  that  the  Alaska  Commer¬ 
cial  Company  schooner  was  under  construction  at  Kodiak,  but  no  one  knew  when  it 
would  put  to  sea.  Simultaneously,  the  revenue  cutters,  upon  which  we  had  counted 
to  a  certain  extent  for  transportation,  began  to  come  into  the  harbor.  As  before 
stated,  we  had  received  permission  from  the  Treasury  Department  to  request  trans¬ 
portation  by  the  revenue  cutters. 

The  Bering  Sea  patrol  fleet,  a  distinct  part  of  the  American  Revenue  Cutter 
Service,  cruises  in  BeriTig  Sea  and  in  polar  waters  from  June  to  the  end  of  Septem¬ 
ber.  During  our  stay  in  the  Aleutians  it  consisted  of  five  or  six  vessels  of  the  gun¬ 
boat  type.  Three  vessels  were  on  duty  to  prevent  pelagic  sealing  and  other  illicit 
activities  of  Japanese  and  other  schooners.  Two  of  them  constantly  cruised  around 
the  Pribilof  Islands,  while  a  third  remained  in  Unalaska  Harbor,  each  being  on  duty 
for  12  days  with  6  days  in  port.  A  fourth  cutter  spent  the  summer  in  the  polar  ocean 
to  protect  and  assist  American  whalers  and  trading  vessels,  while  a  fifth  served  to 
carry  the  members  of  the  district  court  from  place  to  place,  to  hear  civil  and  crimi¬ 
nal  cases  outside  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  commissioners,  to  hear  appeals,  and  to 
defend  the  interests  of  the  native  population.2  A  sixth  cruiser  usually  came  to 

2  The  commanders  of  the  revenue  cutters  have  magisterial  functions  where  there  are  no  resident  com¬ 


missioners. 


16 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Unalaska  in  the  middle  of  the  summer.  Also,  at  the  end  of  the  summer,  one  cutter 
went  westward  as  far  as  Attu,  stopping  at  other  inhabited  islands  en  route.3 

The  chief  of  the  patrol  fleet,  Senior  Captain  William  Jacobs,  had  his  summer 
headquarters  in  Unalaska,  whence  he  directed  the  fleet.  Captain  Jacobs  informed 
us  of  his  instructions  to  assist  us.  Everywhere  we  were  rendered  assistance  by 
officials  and  others,  but  the  most  important  service  rendered  the  expedition  came 
from  Captain  Jacobs.  To  make  it  possible  for  us  to  reach  Attu  he  hastened  the 
western  cruise  and  on  June  9,  1909,  we  left  Unalaska  on  the  revenue  cutter  Perry. 
Before  our  departure,  Captain  Jacobs  informed  us  that  at  the  end  of  July  he 
expected  the  arrival  of  a  new  vessel,  Tahoma,  which,  on  its  way  to  Unalaska  from 
the  west,  would  stop  at  Attu,  and  could  then  carry  us  to  any  other  island  on  our 
schedule.  He  also  promised  that  in  the  event  of  the  failure  of  this  cutter  or  the 
Alaska  Commercial  Company  schooner,  he  would  not  abandon  our  party,  but  would 
send  a  cutter  for  us  in  the  fall. 

The  Perry  was  the  smallest  vessel  in  the  Bering  patrol  fleet,  with  a  tonnage 
of  456,  and  was  under  the  command  of  Captain  F.  J.  Haake.  On  the  way  to  Attu 
we  stopped  at  the  village  of  Chernofski,  on  Unalaska,  at  Bogoslof  Island,  and  at 
Atka,  where  we  unloaded  food,  scientific  instruments,  and  other  equipment  for  work 
there  after  our  return  from  Attu.  We  arrived  at  Attu,  June  15,  and  landed  in 
Chichagof  Bay,  at  the  winter  village  of  the  Attu  Aleut.  On  the  following  day, 
Captain  Haake,  after  obtaining  information  as  to  the  Japanese  schooners  sailing 
past  Attu  to  the  east,  started  on  the  return  cruise.  After  a  few  days  we  moved  with 
the  Aleut  to  their  summer  village  on  Sarana  Bay.  Our  freight  was  transported  in 
skin  boats  while  we  walked  over  the  mountain  ridge  separating  Chichagof  from 
Sarana  Bay.  A  description  of  our  work  at  Sarana  Bay  will  be  given  later. 

June  and  July  passed  and  neither  the  expected  schooner  nor  the  Tahoma  ap¬ 
peared  ;  we  concluded  that  they  would  not  come  until  the  following  year.  The  sup¬ 
plies  in  the  local  store  had  come  to  an  end  long  ago,  so  at  first  we  shared  ours  with 
the  Aleut,  but  early  in  August  these,  too,  began  to  run  low.  We  hoped,  of  course, 
that  we  would  be  taken  off  the  island  in  the  fall,  but  were  troubled  by  the  thought 
that  we  might  have  to  remain  until  the  next  year,  and,  though  the  threatened  priva¬ 
tions  gave  us  some  concern,  we  were  more  concerned  with  the  possibility  of  being 
unable  to  complete  our  work  on  the  Aleutians.  If  the  revenue  cutter  came  for  us 
in  the  fall  it  would  be  possible  to  winter  on  Umnak  Island,  a  most  significant  place 
for  our  work,  but  we  would  have  to  omit  Atka,  a  no  less  important  station. 

When  our  anxiety  had  reached  its  climax  and  not  only  we,  but  the  Aleut  were 
aware  of  the  serious  state  of  affairs,  an  Aleut  boy,  early  in  the  morning  of  August  8, 
ran  down  the  mountain  slope  crying  repeatedly,  “  Steamer  at  Chichagof  Bay !  ”  At 
first  we  were  a  little  suspicious,  since  we  had  had  our  hopes  aroused  by  similar  cries 
before.  However,  we  immediately  ran  over  the  ridge  to  Chichagof  Bay  and  from 
the  top  of  the  mountain  saw  the  smoke  of  a  vessel  in  the  harbor. 


8  It  is  the  duty  of  the  commander  of  this  cruiser  to  visit  the  volcanic  island  Bogoslof,  to  report  on  whatever 
changes  may  have  occurred  during  the  year. 


The  Journey  to  the  Aleutians. 


17 


It  was  the  longed-for  Tahoma,  arriving  from  the  Atlantic  by  way  of  the  Suez 
Canal.  Captain  Quinan,  its  commander,  had  received  a  cable  in  Yokohama  directing 
him  to  take  our  party  off  from  Attu.  Hearing  that  we  were  at  Sarana  Bay,  Captain 
Quinan  ordered  the  vessel  there.  In  order  to  detain  the  steamer  as  little  as  possible, 
we  spent  the  night  packing,  and  early  in  the  morning,  accompanied  by  a  choral  song 
of  the  Aleut,  praising  our  goodness,  liberality,  and  other  virtues,  embarked  on  the 
revenue-cutter.  What  remained  of  our  supplies  we  left  to  the  Aleut  and  some  of  the 
Tahoma’ s  supplies  were  sold  to  them. 

The  Tahoma  reached  Atka  the  evening  of  August  io  and  lay  at  anchor  outside 
the  entrance  of  Nazan  Bay,  fearing  to  enter  it  on  account  of  its  shallow  waters  and 
reefs.  After  taking  our  mail  and  putting  us  ashore,  Captain  Quinan  hurried  away 
in  order  to  reach  Unalaska  in  the  prescribed  time. 

In  the  village  we  learned  that  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company’s  schooner  Leti 
had  left  Unalaska  for  a  western  trip  July  io,  reached  Atka  July  15,  and  left  Atka 
for  Attu  July  18;  23  days  had  elapsed  since  that  date  and  nothing  had  been  heard 
of  the  schooner.  During  our  passage  from  Attu  to  Atka  we  also  had  met  with  no 
vessel.  We  feared  some  accident.  On  August  19  the  Leti  returned  to  Atka,  with  its 
crew  completely  exhausted,  not  having  reached  Attu.  Incessant  contrary  winds  and 
gales  had  carried  the  schooner  into  the  open  sea  and  despairing  of  approaching  Attu 
and  fearing  to  be  wrecked  by  the  storm,  after  32  days’  struggle  with  the  elements 
they  resolved  to  return  to  Atka.  So,  were  it  not  for  the  courteous  assistance  of  the 
Revenue  Cutter  Service  our  party  would  have  shared  the  unlucky  experience  of  the 
Lett’s  crew. 

The  Leti  had  brought  from  Unalaska  our  mail  and  other  papers,  also  food  and 
clothing  forwarded  by  Mr.  Brown,  the  school-teacher  at  Unalaska,  for  distribution 
among  the  Attu  Aleut.4  A  letter  came  from  Captain  Applegate  expressing  his  regret 
that  he  could  not  bring  his  schooner  to  Atka  to  carry  us  to  Umnak.  These  events 
forced  us  to  ask  Captain  Jacobs  to  transfer  us  from  Atka  to  Umnak  before  the  cut¬ 
ters  left  for  the  south.  To  our  great  delight  the  Bear  appeared  in  Nazan  Bay  on 
September  14,  back  from  a  cruise  in  the  polar  ocean.  The  same  day  we  were  taken 
aboard  and  carried  to  Nikolskoye  village  on  Umnak  Island,  where  we  remained 
until  May  1910. 

The  commander  of  the  Bear,  the  late  Captain  Bertholf,5  had  visited  Russia  in 
1901,  when  he  obtained  permission  from  the  Russian  Government  to  travel  through 
Siberia  to  the  district  of  Okhotsk  to  purchase  reindeer  for  breeding  in  Alaska.  This 
was,  so  far  as  we  knew,  the  second  exportation  of  domesticated  Siberian  reindeer  to 
Alaska.  In  accordance  with  our  request  he  stopped  at  Ka'gam-I'lan  Island,  where  a 
cave  containing  a  mummified  body  had  been  reported.  Unfortunately,  we  did  not  find 
the  cave,  but  later  learned  from  the  Umnak  Aleut  that  we  had  actually  been  in  its 
near  vicinity. 

4  Every  summer  American  charitable  institutions  were  in  the  habit  of  sending  clothing  and  food  for  distri¬ 
bution  among  the  Attu,  the  poorest  and  least  provided  for  of  all  the  Aleut. 

5  Captain  Bertholf  plotted  out  a  detailed  chart  of  the  routes  of  the  vessels  of  the  second  Bering  Expedition 

for  F.  A.  Golder’s  “  Bering’s  Voyages,”  published  by  the  American  Geographical  Society,  New  York,  1922.  # 


18 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


We  arrived  at  Umnak  after  Captain  Applegate’s  departure  for  Unalaska.  All 
the  hunters  had  returned  home  and  the  Umnak  people,  ioo  in  all,  were  present. 
Among  them  there  waited  the  chief  of  the  Unalaska  village,  Yachmenev,  whom  we 
had  engaged  as  interpreter  and  who  had  been  brought  there  by  Captain  Applegate. 

To  complete  this  sketch  of  our  trips  among  the  Aleutian  Islands,  it  may  be 
added  that  we  left  Umnak  on  Applegate’s  schooner  May  3,  1910,  and  after  a  stormy 
passage,  reached  Unalaska  May  5.  About  the  end  of  May  the  vessels  of  the  Bering 
Patrol  Fleet  again  appeared,  this  time  with  a  new  commander,  Senior  Captain  Foley, 
who  permitted  us  to  board  the  Perry  to  go  to  the  Pribilof  Islands ;  permission  to  land 
there  had  previously  been  secured  from  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 
After  we  had  landed  the  Perry ,  while  cruising  around  St.  Paul  Island  in  a  fog, 
struck  a  reef  and  sank;  fortunately,  the  crew  reached  the  island  safely. 

From  the  Pribilof  Islands  we  returned  to  Unalaska  on  the  Russian  military 
transport  Kolyma ,  under  the  command  of  Captain  B.  Kuzmin-Karavayef,  which 
had  been  ordered  from  Vladivostok  to  carry  our  party  and  collections  to  Petropov- 
lovsk,  Kamchatka.  After  various  festivities  arranged  for  each  other  by  the  Ameri¬ 
can  and  Russian  naval  officers  and  sailors,  the  Kolyma  sailed  for  Kamchatka  on 
July  26,  1910. 

We  have  intentionally  dwelt  in  detail  on  the  description  of  the  difficulties 
encountered  in  traveling  in  the  Aleutian  Islands  to  make  clear,  that  without  the 
assistance  of  the  revenue-cutters  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  carry  out  our 
plans.  Without  this  assistance  we  should  have  had  to  content  ourselves  with  work 
on  Unalaska  and  Umnak  only. 

For  any  future  investigations,  archaeological,  geological,  or  any  others,6  on  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  explorer  should  have  at  his 
disposal  a  vessel  more  trustworthy  than  a  sail  or  motor  boat.  The  feeble  motors  of  a 
boat  are  as  impotent  in  the  struggle  with  gales  and  storms  as  are  sails.7 

We  take  this  opportunity  to  express  our  gratitude  for  assistance  in  transpor¬ 
tation  between  the  islands,  for  the  kind  attention  and  hospitality  to  the  chiefs  of  the 
Bering  Sea  patrol  fleet,  the  senior  captains,  William  V.  E.  Jacobs  and  Daniel  P. 
Foley;  also  to  Ellsworth  P.  Bertholf,  Frederick  J.  Haake,  and  Johnston  H.  Ouinan, 
the  commanders  of  the  Perry,  Bear,  and  Tahoma,  and  the  other  officers  of  the  vessels 
named.  During  our  stay  on  the  vessels  we  were  placed  in  the  commander’s  cabin, 
our  Aleut  interpreter  with  the  non-commissioned  officers,  and  the  Aleut  laborers  with 
the  sailors.  We  are  especially  indebted  to  Senior  Captain  Jacobs  and  Captain  Ouinan 
for  their  efforts  in  our  behalf. 

6  Much  remains  to  be  learned  both  of  the  (prehistoric)  archaeology  and  the  geology  of  the  Aleutian  Islands. 
In  its  studies  in  Alaska,  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  has  had  in  view  mainly  practical  ends.  The  observation  of 
a  volcanic  chain  may  produce  not  only  purely  scientific  data,  but  also  some  indications  as  to  the  volcanic  activities 
of  adjacent  countries,  and  thus  save  life  and  property. 

7  The  geological  expedition  of  Professor  Jaggar  left  Seattle  for  the  Aleutians  on  its  own  schooner,  carrying 
a  small  motor-boat  for  the  investigations  of  inner  bays,  on  May  20,  1907,  and  returned  to  Seattle,  September  ix. 
The  expedition  lasted  3  months  and  21  days,  of  which  time  2  months  were  spent  at  sea  and  was  time  lost  for 
scientific  work.  The  passage  from  Seattle  to  Unalaska  took  40  days,  while  it  may  be  accomplished  on  a  steamer 
in  5  days.  (See  T.  A.  Jaggar,  jr.,  Journal  of  the  Technology  Expedition  to  the  Aleutian  Islands,  1907,  Technology 
Review,  vol.  10,  No.  x,  Boston,  1908.) 


19 


The  Journey  to  the  Aleutians. 

NATURAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS. 

A  detailed  description  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  had  been  planned  for  the  ethno¬ 
graphic  section  of  this  report,  but  a  brief  summary  of  the  natural  features  of  the 
islands  seems  necessary  here.  For  more  than  800  miles  the  Aleutian  Islands  stretch 
out  from  the  Alaskan  peninsula  in  a  long,  bow-shaped  chain  of  70  treeless  islands, 
excluding  islets.  All  the  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  are  covered  with  high 
mountains,  among  which  are  extinct  and  still  active  volcanoes.  According  to  the 
geologist  Suess,  they  appear  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  Alaskan  range,  though  of  a 
later  formation.  The  shore-line  is  irregular,  the  rocky  mountains  sloping  abruptly 
to  the  sea.  The  bays  are  shallow,  full  of  reefs,  and  are  dangerous  for  navigation. 
Though  the  vegetation  is  luxurious,  it  is  limited  to  grasses,  berry-bearing  shrubs, 
creeping  bushes,  and  varieties  of  low  willows.  On  the  mountain  slopes  we  find  an 
alpine  vegetation  and  various  species  of  mosses  and  lichens.  In  the  narrow  valleys 
between  the  mountain  ridges  or  on  isthmuses  having  insufficient  drainage  are  fresh¬ 
water  lakes  with  hummocky  shores,  such  as  characterize  Siberian  tundras.  The  only 
means  of  inland  communication  was  by  walking,  but  this  was  decidedly  uncomfort¬ 
able  on  account  of  the  tundra-like  hummocks  covered  with  sedge-grass.  The  absence 
of  arboreal  vegetation  may  be  ascribed  not  to  the  climate,  which  is  comparatively 
mild,  but  to  the  constant  gales,  fogs,  and  mists  which  are  encountered  in  Aleutian 
waters,  thus  depriving  the  plants  of  much  sunlight. 

climatic  conditions. 

Meteorological  observations,  using  a  centigrade  thermometer,  were  made  three 
times  daily.  The  following  table  gives  the  mean  monthly  temperature  and  shows  the 
Aleutian  climate  as  far  from  harsh : 


1909 

Place 

Mean 

temp. 

Max. 

temp. 

Min. 

temp. 

March . 

Unalaska  . 

—3-0 

3-0 

—10-5 

April  . 

Do  . 

1.7 

6-5 

— II.5 

May . 

Do  . 

3-0 

8.5 

—  5-0 

June  1  to  8 . 

Do  . 

5-i 

8-5 

2.0 

June  23  to  30 . 

Attu  . 

8.4 

12-5 

4-5 

July  . 

Do  . 

8-5 

16.0 

4.0 

August  1  to  7. . . . 

Do  . 

8.1 

II.O 

6.0 

August  11  to  31 . . . 

Atka  . 

9.1 

16.5 

2.0 

September  I  to  4. . 

Do  . 

7-8 

12.0 

2.0 

September  19  to  30 

U  mnak  . . . 

6.1 

10.0 

1.0 

1909 

Place 

Mean 

temp. 

Max. 

temp. 

Min. 

temp. 

October  . 

Do  . 

5-1 

8.0 

—  2.0 

November  . 

Do  . 

2.1 

6-5 

—  5-5 

December  . 

Do  . 

0.1 

4-5 

—  9-5 

1910 

January  . 

Do  . 

—0-5 

5-0 

—  9-5 

February  . 

Do  . 

—2.7 

3-0 

—13.0 

March  . 

Do  . 

—1.8 

4.0 

—13-5 

April  . 

Do  . 

—0-3 

5-5 

—  8.0 

May  6  to  17 . 

Unalaska  . 

2.3 

7.0 

—  5-5 

As  may  be  noted,  in  some  months  observations  were  made  on  more  than  one 
island.  This,  of  course,  was  because  we  did  not  remain  long  enough  to  complete  our 
observations.  But  even  where  observations  were  recorded  on  different  islands  the 
mean  temperature  does  not  deviate  to  any  great  extent  from  the  actual  average. 
If  we  calculate  the  annual  mean  (taking  the  period  from  March  1,  1909,  to  March  1, 
1910)  we  find  it  to  be  3.90,  with  a  maximum  of  16.5°  (on  the  island  of  Atka, 


20 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


August  12,  1909)  and  a  minimum  of  — 13.00  (on  the  island  of  Umnak,  February  1, 
1910).  The  lowest  temperature  noted  during  the  15  months  of  our  observations, 
— 13. 50,  was  on  the  island  of  Umnak,  March  7,  1910.  Thus,  in  the  course  of  a  year 
(from  March  1,  1909,  to  February  28,  1910),  for  only  3  months  (March,  1909,  and 
January  and  February,  1910)  was  the  mean  temperature  below  zero  and  not  one 
minus  in  the  maxima. 

With  regard  to  the  temperature  of  the  air,  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  only 
two  seasons :  a  long  autumn  and  a  short,  mild  winter.  But  the  incessant  winds  and 
gales  cause  the  slightest  cold  to  be  felt,  and  in  summer,  particularly,  the  constant 
fogs  hide  the  sun.  Throughout  our  meteorological  observations  the  sky  appeared 
quite  clear  on  only  9  days. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EXCAVATIONS  OF  ANCIENT  ALEUT  VILLAGE  SITES. 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS. 

Cultural  processes  are  admittedly  slow.  Though,  for  a  period  of  120  years  the 
Aleut  were  under  the  cultural  influence  of  the  Russians,  who  first  visited  the  islands 
in  1741,  they  had  not,  at  the  time  of  the  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United  States, 
become  entirely  Russianized.  The  adaptation  and  adoption  of  new  manners  and 
customs  involved  in  the  process  went  on  gradually,  but  the  “  civilizing  ”  process  had 
not  yet  been  completed.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  fact  remains  that  200  years  ago  the 
Aleut  lived  in  the  Stone  Age. 

Everywhere  in  the  Aleutian  Islands  are  numerous  depressions  and  deep  cavities, 
the  outward  evidences  of  ancient  underground  dwellings.  The  depth  of  these  sunken 
places  is  an  index  to  their  age;  the  less  deep  the  depression  the  more  remote  is  the 
time  the  sites  were  inhabited.  In  and  about  these  the  decay  of  the  accumulated 
organic  refuse  of  centuries  has  in  the  past  and  will  in  the  future  so  fertilize  the  soil 
as  to  foster  a  luxuriant  growth  of  native  grasses,  which  in  their  turn  add  to  the 
filling  of  the  pits.  Very  often  long-stemmed  wild  barley  ( Elymus ),  wild  pea  ( Lathy - 
rus  maritimus),  lupins,  some  grasses  as  tall  as  a  man,  and  flower-like  anemones, 
orchids,  marguerites,  and  other  flowers  completely  concealed  the  pits  where  the  old 
dwellings  once  stood.  Depressions  concealed  by  these  luxuriant  growths  were  very 
often  not  discovered  until  we  tumbled  into  them  when  walking.  In  the  lower  levels 
of  these  pits,  in  their  turn,  were  to  be  found  the  remains  of  Aleut  life  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Russians,  and  the  deeper  the  layers  of  kitchen  refuse  penetrate  into 
the  earth  the  older  they  are. 

Up  to  the  time  of  our  work,  no  systematic  excavations,  except  those  of  Doctor 
Dali,1  had  been  made  on  the  Aleutians.  Doctor  Dali,  however,  carried  on  his  archaeo¬ 
logical  work  only  casually,  in  the  hours  of  enforced  leisure  from  his  duties  as 
director  of  the  hydrographical  and  geographical  investigation  of  the  islands  carried 
on  under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  in  1870  to  1874;  when 
work  at  sea  was  impossible  because  of  stormy  weather,  he  excavated  wherever  he 
happened  to  be.  So  owing  to  the  casual  character  of  Doctor  Dali’s  investigations, 
his  conclusions  as  to  the  nature  and  development  of  the  former  Aleut  culture  were 
in  need  of  verification  by  further  excavations.  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that 
it  was  impossible  for  us  to  reach  a  full  solution  of  the  Aleutian  archaeological  prob¬ 
lem,  as  our  excavations  were  necessarily  confined  to  sites  on  the  inhabited  islands, 
while  according  to  data  gathered  in  the  course  of  our  work,  perhaps  still  more  inter¬ 
esting  excavations  could  be  conducted  on  islands  no  longer  inhabited.  Then,  too, 

1  Mention  should  be  made  here  of  the  French  ethnologist,  A.  Pinart,  of  whom  we  shall  speak  later,  and 
of  many  curio  hunters  who  ransacked  the  caves  and  other  accessible  ancient  burial-places  of  the  Aleut. 

21 


22 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


in  view  of  the  manifold  aims  of  the  expedition,  only  a  small  part  of  our  time  was 
devoted  to  archaeological  work.* 2  At  the  same  time  it  was  important  to  examine  as 
many  village  sites  as  possible,  so  that  we  had  to  limit  ourselves  to  the  excavation 
of  only  some  of  the  pits  on  a  site  instead  of  examining  all.  These  circumstances 
influenced  the  method  of  procedure.  The  ideal  method  would  have  been  to  dig  a 
trench  along  one  edge  of  the  site  until  bed-rock  or  undisturbed  soil  was  reached, 
thus  uncovering  a  vertical  wall  of  refuse  for  the  whole  site.  This  wall  should  then 
be  photographed  and  measured.  Then,  by  taking  off  horizontal  layers,  one  after 
another,  the  outlines  of  individual  habitations,  fireplaces,  and  the  stratigraphic  order 
of  the  refuse  would  be  revealed.  But  for  such  trenching  and  working  out  a  whole 
village  site  many  months  would  be  needed.  So,  since  time  was  an  important  factor, 
our  excavations  were  limited  to  separate  dwellings,  and  the  following  method 
adopted:  first,  to  determine  the  depth,  outlines,  size,  and  direction  of  the  pit,  the 
grass  was  cut  off  and  the  site  cleared.  Then  the  pit  was  dug  out  at  one  side  in 
terraces,  the  laborers  on  the  lower  steps  passing  the  dirt  to  those  on  the  upper  ones, 
etc.  In  this  way  we  uncovered  a  vertical  wall  opposite  the  terraces,  showing  all  the 
strata  of  the  pit.  Digging  proceeded  until  undisturbed  soil,  showing  no  trace  of 
refuse,  was  reached.  If  this  lowest  layer  consisted  of  soft  sedimentary  soil,  digging 
was  carried  to  a  further  depth  of  approximately  0.5  meter  to  ascertain  that  there 
was  no  deeper  stratum  of  an  older  culture.  After  the  vertical  wall  was  examined, 
measured,  and  photographed,  the  terraces  were  dug  out  and  the  debris  carefully 
sifted  for  implements,  etc.  When  an  archaeological  specimen  of  any  kind  was  dis¬ 
closed,  note  was  taken  of  the  depth  at  which  it  was  found.  If  there  was  any  doubt 
as  to  whether  the  specimen  had  been  displaced  in  digging,  a  note  was  taken  only  of 
the  number  of  the  pit.  The  same  procedure  was  followed  with  specimens  found 
when  sifting  the  soil.  Ordinarily,  two  adjoining  pits  were  dug  simultaneously  under 
the  surveillance  of  the  writer,  Mrs.  Jochelson,  and  the  interpreter. 

In  all,  we  excavated  at  13  ancient  village  sites,  investigated  57  pits  of  various 
sizes,  3  burial  caves,  and  3  other  caves.  If  we  estimate  the  average  length  of  a  pit 
as  56  feet,  the  average  breadth  as  35  feet,  and  the  average  depth  as  14  feet,  the 
debris  moved  from  one  pit  would  amount  to  27,440  cubic  feet  and  for  57  pits  to  1,564,- 
080  cubic  feet. 

The  excavations  were  made  within  a  period  of  47  days.  Ancient  village  sites 
were  pointed  out  to  us  by  the  Aleut,  but  for  excavation  we  had  to  choose  those  most 
easily  accessible;  there  being  no  riding  or  driving  animals,  we  were  confronted  with 
the  problem  of  transportation.  It  was  necessary  to  walk  to  the  places  we  chose  to 
excavate ;  passage  by  skin  boats  was  too  slow  2a  and  too  difficult,  owing  to  the  frequent 


2  It  may  be  added  here  that,  according  to  the  estimate  in  our  original  plans,  only  one  year  was  to  be  devoted 
to  the  Aleut  problem.  Actually,  the  field-work  on  the  Aleutians  stretched  over  a  period  of  19  months,  while  the 
journey  from  Petrograd  to  Unalaska  and  the  preparatory  work  occupied  3  months  more. 

2a  We  preferred  to  cross  narrow  and  long  islands  like  Umnak  by  walking  rather  than  to  go  in  skin  boats  all 
around  them.  We  speak  here  of  small  skin  boats  of  the  kayak  type.  The  large  type  of  skin  boat,  called  by  the 
Eskimo  u'miak  and  by  the  Aleut  nixa'lax ',  is  no  more  used  by  the  Aleut  on  account  of  lack  of  skins  of  larger 
sea  mammals. 


Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


23 


storms.  Besides,  the  skin  boats  were  incapable  of  transporting  much  freight.  Thus, 
our  Aleut  assistants  had  to  carry  on  their  backs  boxes  containing  food,  cooking 
vessels,  digging  implements,  instruments,  tents,  cameras,  guns,  clothing,  and  other 
supplies.  On  the  return  trip  from  an  excavated  site  they  carried  stone  and  bone 
implements,  skeletal  remains,  and  other  archaeological  specimens.  It  was  exceed¬ 
ingly  difficult  to  transport  heavy  stone  specimens  like  stone  lamps;  for  that  reason 
we  abandoned  all  animal  and  bird  bones  excavated,  taking  note  of  them,  however, 
since  the  Aleut  laborers  were  able  to  identify  them. 

With  huge  bundles  and  boxes  on  their  backs,  the  laborers  had  to  climb  high 
mountains  separating  opposite  coasts  or  one  bay  from  another  (plate  7,  fig.  1).  In 
some  places,  as  for  instance  on  Attu,  while  passing  from  Sarana  to  Lastova  Bay 
(see  map,  fig.  1)  we  had  to  walk  over  a  pass  covered  with  snow-fields  and  glaciers. 
Here  the  Aleut  walked  barefooted  to  save  their  boots. 

Of  the  47  days  devoted  to  excavation,  only  8  were  dry  and  calm;  the  remainder 
of  the  time  we  worked  in  rainy  and  stormy  weather,  and  the  wind  scattered  the  small 
particles  of  kitchen  refuse.  Diggings  on  the  ancient  village  sites,  Nanikax  (Attu 
Island)  and  Ukix  (Umnak  Island),  were  left  unfinished  because  of  the  inclement 
weather  and  resumed  later. 

All  the  ancient  Aleut  villages  were  situated  on  the  sea-shore,  not  on  the  high 
land  above  the  sea,  and  usually  on  land  between  two  bays,  so  that  their  skin  boats 
could  easily  be  carried  from  one  body  of  water  to  another  at  the  approach  of  foes. 
Thus  the  usual  location  of  villages  was  on  narrow  isthmuses,  on  necks  of  land 
between  two  ridges,  on  promontories,  or  narrow  sandbanks.  An  indispensable  ad¬ 
junct  to  a  village  was  a  supply  of  easily  accessible  fresh  water — a  brook,  fall,  or 
lake.  River-mouths  were  never  used  as  permanent  dwelling-places,  because  the 
topographical  conditions  were  conducive  to  unexpected  attacks.  The  underground 
dwellings  of  the  old  Aleut  were  much  like  traps;  if  an  attack  were  made  when  the 
inhabitants  were  within,  they  could  leave  it  alive  only  through  the  single  opening 
in  the  roof.  For  this  reason  villages  were  built  on  open  places,  whence  observations 
could  be  made  far  out  to  sea.  Near  every  village  was  an  observatory  ( agi'sax ') 
on  a  hill  where  constant  watch  was  kept.  The  sentry  was  called  amgi'gnax\  Here, 
too,  hunters  watched  for  the  appearance  of  sea-mammals,  and  in  turn  the  people  of 
the  village  watched  for  the  return  of  the  hunters,  greeting  them  with  songs  and 
dances. 

At  the  time  of  our  investigations  the  Aleut  villages  were  situated  mainly  in 
valleys  at  the  river-mouths,  where  they  were  settled  by  the  Russian  invaders.  This 
change  had  some  advantage,  since,  with  the  advent  of  the  Russians,  internal  wars 
ceased;  moreover,  the  Aleut  were  in  a  position  to  take  advantage  of  the  annual 
spawning  migration  of  salmon,  which  they  caught  and  dried  in  the  summer  for 
winter  use.  In  ancient  times  the  Aleut  visited  such  rivers  to  catch  salmon,  but  never 
had  permanent  villages  on  their  banks ;  moreover,  they  caught  sea-fish,  chiefly  hali¬ 
but,  cod,  and  sculpin,  from  skin  boats  out  on  the  open  sea. 


3 


24 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


EXCAVATIONS  ON  ATTU. 

On  Attu  three  village  sites  were  excavated:  first,  the  ancient  village,  Sin, 
situated  within  a  half-mile  of  the  present  winter  village  on  Chichagof  Bay;  second, 
near  the  present  summer  village  on  Sarana  Bay;  third,  the  site  of  the  ancient  village, 
Nanikax,  on  Lastova  Bay  (Aleut,  Igu'lux ').  (See  map  of  Attu.)  The  most  signifi¬ 
cant  results  were  obtained  from  the  excavations  at  Nanikax.  The  village  site,  Sin, 
and  the  pits  on  both  banks  of  the  river  flowing  into  Sarana  Bay  seem  to  have  been 
inhabited  at  a  later  period  than  Nanikax,  which  was  on  a  small  cape  projecting  into 
Lastova  Bay. 

On  the  site  of  Nanikax  were  traces  of  15  pits,  of  different  sizes  and  not  in  any 
regular  order.  None  of  the  pits  observed  here  appeared  to  be  of  a  size  suitable  for  a 
so-called  kashim,3  a  remark  which  may  be  applied  to  the  two  other  village  sites  also. 


Lastova  Bay  is  separated  from  Sarana  Bay  by  a  rocky  promontory,  with  a  pass 
at  a  height  of  900  meters.  The  pits  were  oblong  rectangles,  some  with  rounded 
corners.  Prior  to  digging,  all  the  pits  were  about  a  meter  in  depth.  At  Nanikax 
6  pits  were  excavated. 

Pit  1,  with  its  longitudinal  axis  from  east  to  west,  was  8.7  meters  long  and 
6  meters  wide.  Strata  3.5  meters  deep  contained  shell  and  other  refuse,  and  rested 
on  a  gravel-bed.  The  depth  of  the  excavations  was  reckoned  from  the  upper  edge 
of  the  pit.  Pit  2,  with  longitudinal  axis  extending  northeast-southwest,  was  8  meters 
long  and  4.8  meters  wide.  Refuse  strata  extended  to  a  depth  of  3.8  meters  on  the 
northeastern  side  and  3.4  meters  on  the  southwestern  side.  Pit  3  was  located  some¬ 
what  nearer  the  sea  on  the  slope  of  the  hill.  Its  longitudinal  axis  also  extended  from 
northeast  to  southwest.  It  was  9.6  meters  long  and  6.8  wide.  Refuse  was  found 
to  a  depth  of  2.7  meters.  Pit  4  was  situated  at  the  apex  of  the  hill  on  which 
the  village  had  stood  and  contained  deeper  layers  of  refuse.  Its  longitudinal  axis 
was  from  northeast  to  southwest;  its  length  8.7  meters  and  its  width  5.5  meters. 
The  shell-heaps  extended  to  a  depth  of  5  meters.  A  section  of  the  northeastern  wall 


3  A  special  earth-hut  of  the  Eskimo  for  gatherings,  festivals,  and  dances. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  2 


1.  Venus  petiti  Desh.  (Aleut,  satma'yux') . 

2.  Saxidomus  nuttali  Conr.  =  Saxidomus  squalidus 

Desh.  (Aleut,  imu'lux'). 

3.  Pecten  sp. 

4.  Cardium  sp. 

5.  Litorina  sitchana  Mid.  (Aleut),  cimka'yux')- 

6.  Acmaea  patina  Esch.  (Aleut,  ci'knax'). 


7.  Katharina  tunicata  Wood  (Aleut,  kasigux',  Attu 

dialect,  qasu'gix'). 

8.  Mytilus  edulis  L.  (Aleut,  hwa'yigix). 

9.  Triton  cancellatus  Lan. 

10.  Modiola  modiolus  L.  (Aleut,  cu'sux'). 

11.  Cardium  nuttalli  Conr.  (Aleut,  qama'kux'). 

12.  Mactra  ponderosa  Phil.  s.  ovalis  Say  (Aleut, 

ca'lax'). 


natural  size. 


- 

■ 

- 


Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


25 


of  the  pit  is  shown  on  plate  4,  fig.  2.  The  contents  of  the  layers,  with  refuse  from 
top  to  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  were  as  follows : 

(1)  1.28  meters. — Mold,  with  plant-roots  and  mixed  refuse.  Bones  of  sea  mammals  prevailed,  but  bones  of 

birds  and  fish,  mollusk  shells,  and  echini  were  also  found. 

(2)  0.21  meter. — A  layer  of  kitchen  remains  exclusively — bird  and  fish  bones,  and  shells  of  echini.  Echini 

predominated. 

(3)  0.21  meter. — Fat  mold  containing  whale-bones. 

(4)  0.32  meter. — Pure  kitchen  remains — fish-bones,  mollusk  and  echini  shell.  Echini  predominated. 

(5)  0.12  meter. — Mold  only. 

(6)  0.37  meter. — Layer  of  mollusk  shells  with  a  small  admixture  of  echini  and  fish-bones. 

(7)  0.19  meter. — A  layer  of  fish-bones  and  the  lower  jaw  of  a  large  whale. 

(8)  0.52  meter. — Fish-bones  and  shells  of  shellfish  and  echini.  Shellfish  and  echini  prevailed. 

(9)  0.92  meter. — A  layer  of  fish-bones  with  a  small  admixture  of  shellfish  and  echini. 

(10)  0.62  meter. — A  layer  of  fish-bones,  shellfish,  echini,  and  whale-bone. 

(11)  0.19  meter. — Shingle,  like  that  of  the  seashore,  and  quite  a  little  echini. 

Bones  of  the  following  sea  mammals  were  found  in  this  section:  sea-otters 
(. Enhydris  marina;  Aleut  ca'xtux ') ;  a  large  species  of  seal  ( Erignatus  barbatus; 
Aleut,  i'sux ') ;  sea-lions  ( Eumetopias  stelleri ;  Aleut,  qa'hwax ')  ;  and  three  species 
of  whale.  Unfortunately,  two  of  these  could  not  be  identified.  The  Aleut  call  them 
agya'x,  one  of  the  largest  whales,  probably  Balcena  mysticetus;  agama'xcix ',  a  small 
whale,  probably  Balcenoptera  velifera;  hi'xtax';  the  whale  Ziphius,  the  oil  of  which 
is  used  for  burning  only  and  not  for  food,  as  it  is  a  purgative.  Guests  whom  the 
Aleut  wished  to  deride  were  treated  with  fat  of  the  Ziphius  whale. 

The  bird-bones  found  were:  uriles  or  black  cormorants  ( Phalacrocorax  urile; 
Aleut,  agayu'x')  ;  Pacific  eider  ( Somateria  v.  nigrum  Gray;  Aleut,  Attu  dialect, 
cayu'sux',  Unalaska  dialect,  sa'kux ')  ;  Pacific  gull  ( Larus  glaucescens  Neum.,  Aleut, 
slu'kax ');  guillemot  ( Pseuduria  columba  Pallas;  Aleut,  si' minx'  and  si' b lux') ; 
tufted  puffin  ( Lunda  cirrhata;  Aleut,  ux'cux') ;  petrel  ( Synthliborramphus  anti- 
quus  Gmelin;  Aleut,  sa'tax'  and  qida'nax ') ;  albatross  ( Diomedea  albatross  Pallas; 
Aleut,  agli'gax') ;  rosy  finch  ( Leucosticte  tephrocotis ;  Aleut,  qulgax '  and  uluga'- 
six').  The  Aleut  used  the  reddish  down  of  the  rosy  finch  to  ornament  their  bird- 
skin  parkas  (shirt-like  overcoats). 

The  fish-bones  were:  Russian  ter  pug,  a  species  of  Cottoidse  ( Hexagrammus ; 
Aleut,  sax),  cod  ( Gadus  macrocephalus  Til.;  Aleut,  atki'yax'),  and  halibut  ( Hippo - 
glossus  vulgaris;  Aleut,  ca'qix '). 

The  mollusks  were  (see  plate  2) :  Acmaea  patina  Esch.  (Aleut,  ciki'cax '  and 
ci'knax'),  Katharina  tunicata  Wood  (Aleut,  qasu'gix '  and  kasi'gux '),  Litorina 
sitchana  Mid.  (Aleut,  cimi'gix '  and  cimka'yux') ,  Modiola  modiolus  L.  (Aleut,  kyux ' 
and  cu'sux'),  Mytilus  edulis  L.  (Aleut,  ma'yigix '  and  hzva'yigix' ) ,  Mactra  ponderosa 
Phil.  s.  ovalis  Say  (Aleut,  ca'lax '),  sea-urchin  ( Strongylocentratus  drcebachiensis 
Mull.;  Aleut,  agu'nax').4 

According  to  my  field-notes,  the  depths  at  which  the  specimens  were  found 
in  Pit  4  are  as  follows:  Layer  1,  a  bone  needle  (text-fig.  636),  a  comb  (text-fig.  58), 
a  small  bone  plate  with  holes  (plate  26,  fig.  21 ),  a  bone  lamp  (plate  20,  fig.  7),  a  bone 
arrow-point  (plate  25,  fig.  9),  a  bone  arrow-point  (plate  24,  fig.  43),  a  bone  arrow- 

4  Where  two  Aleut  names  are  given,  the  first  is  in  the  Attu  or  western  dialect  and  the  second  is  in  the 
Unalaska  or  eastern  dialect. 


26 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


point  (plate  27,  fig.  24),  a  marble  stopper  (text-fig.  105),  a  stone  lamp  (362). 5 
Layer  3:  a  bone  harpoon-head  (plate  22,  fig.  1).  Layer  4:  a  bone  carving  of  a 
whale  (text-fig.  77).  Layer  8:  a  bone  arrow-point  (plate  23,  fig.  18).  Layer  10: 
a  stone  spear-point  (text- fig.  33).  The  last  layer,  11 :  a  bone  lamp  (plate  20,  fig.  5). 

The  contents  of  the  various  layers  in  Pits  1  to  3  were  approximately  the  same 
as  in  Pit  4,  although  the  order  of  the  layers  was  not  quite  identical.  Echini  and 
mollusks  predominated  in  the  lower  strata. 

Close  to  Pits  1  and  4,  to  their  west  and  southwest  respectively,  were  excavated 
two  smaller  pits  in  which  kitchen  refuse  and  skeletal  remains  were  found.  These 
small  pits,  separated  from  the  large  pits  by  walls  1.5  meters  wide,  were  evidently 
for  burial.  Pit  6,  the  small  pit  near  Pit  4,  was  2.5  meters  long  and  1.9  meters  wide. 
Here,  at  a  depth  of  1.5  meters,  close  to  the  wall,  a  skeleton  (plate  11,  fig.  1)  was 
found.  In  other  sections  of  this  pit  and  at  the  same  depth  8  more  skeletons  were 
uncovered.  Four  were  crushed  under  the  weight  of  a  heavy  whale-bone.  In  this  pit, 
strata-bearing  culture  remains  reached  a  depth  of  3.4  meters.  At  a  depth  of  3.3 
meters,  a  stone  spear-point  (416)  was  found. 

Two  pits  were  excavated  in  the  Sin  village  site:  No.  1  was  11  meters  long  and 
8.2  meters  wide;  No.  2  was  4.5  by  3.8  meters.  In  the  latter  were  preserved  all  the 
whale-bones  which  had  served  as  the  ceiling  frame  (plate  7,  fig.  3).  In  both  pits 
specimens  bearing  layers  containing  bones  of  sea  mammals,  fish,  mollusks,  echini, 
and  bone  and  stone  implements  reached  a  depth  of  a  little  over  2  meters.  Though 
no  objects  showing  Russian  influence  were  found  here,  the  writer  is  inclined  to  the 
opinion  that  the  Aleut  lived  in  Sin  after  the  Russian  advent.  Kitchen  remains  were 
very  meager,  and  these  were  mixed  with  earth.  The  village  was  situated  on  a  moun¬ 
tain  slope  right  over  the  sea,  a  location  which  would  not  have  been  chosen  by  the 
ancient  Aleut.  The  site  was  occupied  by  a  kitchen-garden  where  the  Aleut  had 
planted  potatoes  and  turnips. 

Excavation  of  pits  in  the  banks  of  the  small  river  flowing  into  Sarana  Bay, 
above  the  present  summer  village,  bore  similar  results.  On  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  a  pit  was  dug  13.4  meters  long  and  5.3  meters  wide.  Two  smaller  pits  were 
excavated  on  the  left  bank;  Pit  A  was  4.8  by  3.7  meters  and  Pit  B  was  6.8  by  5.4 
meters  and  revealed  few  traces  of  kitchen  refuse.  Thin  streaks  of  sea-urchins  were 
disclosed,  but  no  deeper  than  at  about  1.5  meters.  Doubtless  the  Aleut  lived  in  these 
underground  dwellings  after  the  arrival  of  the  Russians.  The  larger  pit  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  was  evidently  the  remains  of  an  earthen  barrack-hut,  in  which 
Aleut  men  had  lived  when  hunting  under  Russian  direction.  It  has  already  been 
pointed  out  that  the  ancient  Aleut  did  not  settle  in  an  inclosed  bay  or  in  river  valleys. 

EXCAVATIONS  ON  ATKA. 

Two  ancient  village  sites,  Atxa'lax'  and  Hala'ca,  were  excavated  on  Atka;  also, 
two  burial  caves,  which  will  be  described  later,  were  examined. 

6  The  number  in  parenthesis  gives  the  number  of  the  specimen  in  the  Ethnographical  Division  of  the 
Rumiantzev  Museum  in  Moscow.  All  unillustrated  specimens  are  marked  by  such  museum  numbers. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  3 


H  N  «  Tf 


Excavations  on  Umnak  Island. 

•  Section  of  Pit  3  at  Ukix  village  site,  depth  2.5  meters.  5.  Aleut  laborers  lunching  in  the  depression  formed  by  a  former  underground 

:.  Section  of  Pit  2  at  Aglagax  village  site,  depth  6.5  meters.  dwelling  at  Ugludax  site. 

,.  Bones  of  whales  amid  kitchen  refuse  on  the  ancient  village  site,  Aglagax.  6.  Neck  of  land  between  the  bay  and  a  lake  on  which  was  located  the  Ugludax 
..  Excavation  of  Pit  2  at  Ugludax  village  site  at  beginning  of  operations.  site. 


Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


27 


At x a' lax '. — This  village  site,  according  to  the  Aleut,  was  very  ancient  and  was 
inhabited  long  before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians.  Before  that  time  few  Aleut  lived 
on  Atka,  but  Russian  hunters  transferred  to  Atka  Aleut  from  the  islands  of  Tanaga, 
Kanaga,  and  Adax.  The  site  of  the  present  village  was  selected  by  Russian  hunters 
because  of  its  protected  position  on  Nazan  Bay,  which  was  cut  off  from  Bering  Sea 
by  a  semicircle  of  small  islands  and  rocks.  Atxa'lax'  was  situated  on  a  promontory 
covering  the  entrance  to  the  bay  from  the  north  and,  with  the  nearest  island,  form¬ 
ing  a  narrow  strait  for  the  entrance  into  the  bay.  This  passage,  because  of  the  reefs, 
is  not  navigable  by  ships  (plate  i,  fig.  i).  Atxa'lax'  was  situated,  not  on  the  elevated 
rocky  end  of  the  promontory,  but  on  the  low,  narrow  middle  portion  about  25  feet 
above  sea-level.  On  either  side  of  this  narrow  section  of  the  promontory  are  two 
small  bays,  one  facing  Nazan  Bay,  the  other  the  open  sea  (plate  8,  fig.  4) ;  25  depres¬ 
sions  were  noted  on  this  site,  all  of  moderate  size,  and  some  rather  small. 


We  succeeded  in  excavating  only  2  pits  on  the  Atxa'lax'  site — a  large  one  (A) 
and  a  much  smaller  one  ( B ),  side  by  side.  We  dug  both  pits  simultaneously,  with 
the  expectation  of  digging  out  the  wall  separating  them.  The  large  pit  was  8  by  5.5 
meters  and  about  a  meter  in  depth  before  digging.  The  small  pit  to  its  south  was 
4  by  3  meters.  The  depth  of  the  section  of  the  large  pit  was  4.2  meters;  the  strata 
from  the  top  down  contained  the  following  layers : 

(1)  0.85  meter. — Mold  with  roots  and  a  mixture  of  kitchen  refuse.  The  contents  of  the  upper  layers  differed 

considerably  from  those  at  Attu,  where  bones  of  sea  mammals  predominated.  Here  there  were 
fish-bones,  mollusk-shells,  and  sea-urchin  cuirasses.  Of  sea  mammals  there  were  the  bones  of  small 
seals  ( Phoca  vitulina),  sea-lions,  sea-otters,  and  whales;  of  birds,  bones  of  uriles,  guillemot  ( Uria 
lomvia  arra;  Aleut,  saki’tax*) ,  and  eiders;  of  fish,  cod  and  halibut  bones;  of  mollusks,  shells  of 
Mytilus  edulis. 

(2)  0.2  meter. — Kitchen  refuse  without  any  admixture  of  earth:  echini  and  shells  of  Mytilus  edulis. 

(3)  1-55  meters. — Kitchen  refuse  mixed  with  earth.  In  this  layer  were  found  bones  of  seal,  sea-otters,  whales, 

puffins,  uriles,  guillemots,  eiders,  and  bones  of  codfish  and  halibut.  Shells  of  the  following  mollusks 
were  found :  Mactra  ponderosa  Phil,  and  Saxidomus  nuttali  Conr.  Thin  streaks  of  echini  and 
Mytilus  edulis  also  occurred. 

(4)  0.55  meter. — The  layer  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  kitchen  refuse,  mainly  echini  and  shells  of  Mytilus 

edulis ,  among  which  were  also  found  sea-otter  and  seal  bones. 

(5)  0.9  meter. — A  layer  of  mold  which  in  former  times  was  evidently  the  top  soil.  This  contained  a  small 

admixture  of  miscellaneous  kitchen  refuse,  containing  echini,  mollusks  (in  the  same  varieties  as 
in  the  other  layers)  bones  of  fish  and  sea-mammals,  especially  seal. 

(6)  0.15  meter.' — Pure  yellow  sand. 


28 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


The  following  objects  were  found  at  the  depths  indicated:  at  2.4  meters,  at  the 
bottom  of  layer  3,  half  of  the  lower  jaw  of  a  large  whale.  It  was  3.3  meters  long 
and  at  its  widest  part  was  0.6  meter.  Both  ends  were  rounded  and  polished  smooth, 
and  in  the  heavier  end  were  two  perforations  made  with  a  stone  drill.  These  were 
evidently  for  tying  the  bone  to  a  post,  rafter,  or  another  bone  in  the  ceiling  frame. 
On  both  sides  and  for  its  entire  length  the  bone  was  grooved  and  nicely  polished. 
Because  of  its  weight  it  was  impossible  to  remove  the  bone  and  the  photograph 
taken  of  it  turned  out  very  poor.  However,  it  is  illustrated  in  plate  1,  figure  2,  where 
it  can  be  seen  near  the  tent  in  the  general  view  of  our  excavations.  Under  the  jaw 
were  found  some  bone  arrow-points  and  -a  bone  club  for  stunning  small  sea- 
mammals  (767,  768,  769). 

At  a  depth  of  3.4  meters,  in  the  upper  part  of  layer  5,  were  found  a  bone  awl 
(plate  27,  fig.  22),  a  flat  stone  frying-pan,  a  large  stone  lamp  (plate  19,  fig.  2),  and 
the  bone  of  a  seal  and  a  small  whale. 

In  the  lower  part  of  layer  5,  at  a  depth  of  4  meters,  among  the  bones  of  cod-fish 
and  sculpin,  were  found  a  stone  for  grinding  colors  (plate  19,  fig.  4),  a  stone  pestle 
(plate  17,  fig.  19),  pieces  of  ocher  for  paint,  a  stone  frying-pan  (1697,  Aleut, 
cu'nlux '),  a  bone  arrow-point,  and  a  stone  sinker  (plate  18,  fig.  1). 

The  layers  in  the  smaller  pit  followed  approximately  the  same  order  as  in  the 
larger  pit.  In  the  upper  mold  layer,  fish-bones  and  echini  and  mollusk  shells  pre¬ 
dominated.  At  a  depth  of  1.8  meters  we  found  a  broken  human  skull  with  its  lower 
jaw  and  some  decayed  bones  of  the  skeleton.  Under  these  was  a  thin  layer  of  clayey 
sand;  below,  at  a  depth  of  2.1  meters,  were  the  bones  of  a  large  whale.  Under  these, 
at  a  depth  of  2.4  meters,  was  another  human  skull  with  the  lower  jaw.  The  upper 
jaw  was  entirely  decayed.  No  other  skeletal  remains  were  found.  It  is  possible  that 
when  the  ceiling  fell  it  tore  the  skull  from  the  body  and  the  rest  of  the  skeleton  lay 
somewhere  outside  the  limits  of  our  diggings ;  or  the  skull  may  have  been  a  trophy 
of  an  enemy  killed,  since  the  ancient  Aleut  warriors  used  to  bring  home  the  head 
of  a  slain  enemy,  which  they  set  up  on  a  pole  on  the  roof  of  their  dwelling.  Without 
doubt  the  bones  of  the  large  whale  at  one  time  formed  the  framework  of  the  roof 
of  the  underground  dwelling  and  the  first  skull  belonged  to  a  man  of  a  generation 
later  than  that  of  the  lower  skull. 

In  the  same  layer  with  the  lower  skull  were  found  the  bones  of  a  sea-lion,  a 
lamp  made  of  diabase  porphyrite  (788),  the  outer  side  smoothly  polished,  and  half 
of  an  unbaked  clay  lamp  (781),  which  fell  to  pieces  when  touched.  This  was  the 
only  trace  of  Aleut  pottery.  At  a  depth  of  2.5  meters  were  bones  of  sea-lions,  sea- 
otters,  seals,  and  a  small  whale  (Aleut,  ci'dax ').  Among  these  were  fragments  of 
ornamental  bone-arrows,  a  narrow  bone  foreshaft  of  a  drill,  and  stone  frying-pans 
burned  by  fire. 

Halaca  Village. — This  site  was  situated  on  a  rocky  promontory  composed  of 
conglomerate.  The  promontory  lies  on  the  southeastern  side  of  the  island,  over¬ 
looking  the  strait  separating  Atka  from  Amlia.  The  village  was  situated  20  meters 
above  sea-level.  Jutting  out  from  the  rocky  end  of  the  promontory,  the  island 
formed  an  isthmus  8  to  10  meters  high,  with  small  bays  on  either  side,  north  and 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  4 


i.  Drying  skulls  and  other  human  bones  uncovered  by- 
excavations  on  Umnak  Island.  In  the  sacks  is  the 
party’s  coal  supply  in  preparation  for  wintering  on 
the  Island. 


2.  Section  of  Pit  4  of  Nanikax  site,  Attu  Island.  Depth 

5  m. 

3.  Section  of  Pit  2,  Ukix  Site,  Umnak  Island.  Depth 

3-3  m. 


Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


29 


south.  In  short,  this  promontory  represents  a  typical  site  for  an  old  Aleut  village. 
From  its  rocky  extremity  one  could  look  far  out  to  sea  and  in  case  of  danger  the 
skin  boats  could  be  readily  carried  from  one  bay  to  the  other.  Generally,  however, 
villages  were  not  situated  on  the  high,  rocky  extremity  of  a  promontory,  but  on  the 
low  isthmus,  as  was  the  case  with  Atxa'lax'  on  the  island  of  Atka  and  Nani'kax' 
on  Attu. 

All  the  evidence  pointed  to  the  fact  that  Halaca  was  an  old  site,  but  judging 
from  the  small  quantity  of  kitchen  refuse  found  and  the  absence  of  human  bones, 
with  the  exception  of  the  lower  jaw  of  a  child,  it  may  be  inferred  that  Halaca  was 
a  summer  village  and  probably  a  summer  resort  for  the  inhabitants  of  Atxalax,  an 
hour’s  journey  in  a  skin  boat.  This  fact  may  also  explain  why  the  excavations  in 
Atxalax  and  the  examination  of  nearby  caves  yielded  so  large  a  quantity  of  skeletal 
remains.  This  supposition  that  Halaca  was  only  a  summer  resort  may  also  be  cor¬ 
roborated  by  its  situation  on  the  high  rocky  extremity  of  the  promontory,  fully 
exposed  to  the  stormy  winds,  which,  however,  were  less  violent  during  the  summer. 

In  Halaca  there  were  only  8  large  pits.  The  largest  was  excavated ;  its  length 
was  io  meters  and  its  width  6.8  meters.  Its  longitudinal  axis  was  northeast.  The 
depth  of  the  pit  before  digging  was  i  meter;  depth  of  section  3.5  meters.  Layers 
bearing  remains  were  as  follows : 

(1)  1.2  meters. — Fat  clayey  mold  containing  plant  roots.  .Scant  remains  of  kitchen  refuse.  In  the  upper  part 

of  the  layer  were  bones  of  sea-lions,  sea-otters,  seals,  and  albatross,  pieces  of  burned  wood,  flat 
stone  frying-pans,  a  stone  knife,  and  stone  arrow-heads  (830,  831,  832,  and  834).  In  the  lower  part 
of  the  layer  were  shells  of  Mytilus  edulis,  echini,  bones  of  cod-fish,  some  bones  of  sea-otters,  seals, 
and  bones  of  a  large  whale,  much  decayed. 

(2)  0.4  meter. — Very  little  earth  and  much  kitchen  refuse:  shells  of  echini,  Mytilus  edulis  and  Acmeea  patina, 

and  fish  and  bird  bones.  Among  these  were  found  an  awl  made  of  an  albatross  wing-bone,  a  bone 
harpoon-foreshaft,  and  many  bird  bones  for  making  needles. 

(3)  x  meter. — Fat  clayey  earth.  The  kitchen  refuse  consisted  chiefly  of  cod-bones,  echini  and  Mytilus  edulis 

shells,  the  partially  burnt  jaw  of  a  whale,  a  bone  needle-case,  and  a  stone  knife. 

(4)  0.1  meter. — A  layer  of  mold  containing  bones  of  seals,  sea-lions,  and  cod-fish,  and  shells  of  Mytilus  edulis, 

and  echini. 

(5)  0.2  meter. — A  layer  of  pure  kitchen  refuse,  without  earth,  consisting  chiefly  of  echini  shells,  Mytilus  edulis, 

and  fish-bones. 

(6)  0.4  meter. — A  layer  of  mold  containing  a  small  quantity  of  bones  of  cod,  albatross,  and  seals. 

(7)  0.2  meter. — A  layer  of  yellow  clay  without  any  trace  of  cultural  remains. 

No  lamps  t>r  fish-hook  sinkers  were  found  in  this  pit  and  other  objects  also 
were  scarce. 

Besides  the  8  large  pits,  there  were  io  small  round  ones.  They  were  not  situ¬ 
ated  in  a  certain  order,  but  were  found  chiefly  on  the  upper  part  of  the  hill-slope. 
Three  of  these  small  pits  were  excavated;  they  were  1.5  meters  in  diameter. 
Excavation  of  2  of  the  pits  yielded  nothing,  while  in  the  third,  at  a  depth  of  2  feet, 
we  found  a  small  layer  of  echini.  These  small  pits  very  likely  served  for  storing 
food  supplies. 

EXCAVATIONS  ON  THE  ISLAND  OF  UMNAK. 

On  Umnak  four  ancient  village  sites  were  excavated:  Agla'gax',  Nutxa'kax', 
U'kix',  and  Uglu'dax'  (see  map). 

Agla'gax '. — Agla'gax'  was  situated  about  20  miles  to  the  south  of  the  present 
village  of  Nikolskoye.  To  reach  this  site  from  Nikolskoye,  it  was  necessary  to  pass 


30 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


over  a  promontory,  near  the  old  village  site  of  Nutxa'kax',  where  a  summer  hut  of 
the  Aleut  Shepetin  was  located,  and  then  from  there  to  proceed  south  along  the 
coast,  to  cross  a  lofty  hill  on  a  high  promontory  to  the  southwest,  and  thus  approach 
the  coast  within  sight  of  the  Four  Crater  Islands.  From  here  we  walked  for  2  hours 
along  the  coast  on  a  sandy  beach  to  a  small  bay,  where,  on  a  high  promontory,  the 
village  of  Agla'gax'  was  situated.  We  found  traces  of  two  villages,  the  lower  one 
situated  15  meters  above  sea-level,  the  upper  5  meters  higher,  at  the  top  of  the  hill. 
Agla'gax'  village  was  situated  on  the  narrowest  part  of  Umnak  Island  and  only 
4  miles  from  its  southern  extremity,  which  is  separated  from  Samalga  Island  by  a 
strait.  From  the  high  hill  on  which  the  village  site  is  situated  can  be  seen  the  waters 
of  Bering  Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Below  the  lower  village,  the  entire  low  and 


narrow  part  of  the  promontory  is  marshy  tundra  whose  waters  form  a  lake,  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  sea  only  by  a  small  rampart,  20  to  25  fathoms  wide.  This  lake  was 
the  only  source  of  fresh  water  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  village. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  relative  ages  of  these  two  villages.  Very  likely, 
at  one  period,  the  villages  were  occupied  simultaneously,  but  apparently  the  lower 
village  was  still  inhabited  after  the  coming  of  the  Russians,  since  in  the  upper  layers 
excavated  were  found  objects  of  Russian  origin.  In  both  villages  we  excavated 
4  large  and  8  small  pits  called  ula'kax \  i.  e .,  burial  huts.  O11  the  upper  village  site 
were  8  large  and  10  small  pits.  The  large  pit  (No.  2)  yielded  the  deepest  section 
containing  cultural  remains;  it  was  12  meters  long  and  9.5  meters  wide,  and  before 
digging  was  1.3  meters  deep.  Its  longitudinal  axis  was  from  northeast  to  southwest, 
while  the  height  of  the  shaft  was  6.5  meters  (plate  3,  fig.  2).  The  cultural  layers 
from  the  upper  edge  of  the  pit  to  the  undisturbed  soil  were  as  follows: 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  5 


Excavations  on  Umnak  Island. 

Section  of  Pit  3,  Ugludax  Site.  Depth,  2.1  meters.  2.  Section  of  Pit  1,  Ukix  Site.  Depth,  2.3  meters.  3.  Section  of  Pit  1,  Ugludax  Site.  Depth,  3.3  meters. 


Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


31 


(x)  0.3  meter. — A  layer  of  mold  containing  scant  kitchen  refuse  or  other  remains. 

(2)  0.85  meter. — A  layer  of  pure  kitchen  refuse  in  which  echini  predominated.  There  was  also  a  small  quan¬ 

tity  of  mollusk  shells  ( Acmcea  patina  and  Mytilus  edulis )  and  bird-bones. 

(3)  1.2  meters. — A  layer  of  kitchen  refuse  intermingled  with  earth,  in  which  a  skeleton  was  found  (see 

Chapter  IV).  Under  the  skeleton,  in  the  lower  part  of  the  layer,  were  found  the  bones  of  a  large  whale 
which  had  served  as  the  ceiling  frame;  from  this  we  may  conclude  that  the  skeleton  belonged  to  a 
later  generation  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  dwelling  of  which  parts  of  the  bone  ceiling  were  found. 

(4)  0.75  meter. — A  layer  of  fat  mold  evidently  due  to  the  decay  of  organic  substances.  This  contained  many 

rotted  whale-bones  which  crumbled  to  pieces  when  handled.  In  some  places  the  putrified  whale¬ 
bones  looked  like  yellow  sand.  Much  better  preserved  were  the  bones  of  sea-otters  found  in  the 
same  layer. 

(5)  0.06  meter. — A  thin  layer  of  sea-urchin  shells. 

(6)  0.25  meter. — A  layer  of  mold  containing  some  trace  of  kitchen  refuse,  with  the  bones  of  sea-otters  and  of 

the  large  whale  ( Balcena  sieboldii,  the  Pacific  right  whale,  Aleut,  kula'max '),  predominated. 

(7)  0-75  meter. — A  layer  of  kitchen  refuse  with  very  little  earth.  Fish  bones  and  mollusk  shells  predominated, 

but  there  were  also  echini  shells,  bird-bones,  and  other  animal  bones.  The  bottom  of  this  layer  was 
composed  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  Pacific  right-whale  and  sea-lion  bones. 

(8)  0.9  meter. — An  earth  layer  containing  kitchen  refuse.  There  were  very  few  echini,  the  bones  of  sea- 

mammals  predominating,  chiefly  those  of  sea-otters  ( Callorhinus  ur sinus;  Aleut,  laku'dax'). 

(9)  0.6  meter. — A  layer  of  the  same  character  as  Pit.  8.  In  the  right  corner  was  a  heap  of  mollusk  shells 

( Acnuza  patina  Esch.  and  Litorina  sitchana  Desh.)  0.4  meter  thick.  Bones  of  a  small  whale  were 
found  in  the  lower  part  of  the  layer. 

(10)  0.6  meter. — A  layer  containing  bones  of  the  bowhead  whale  ( Balcena  mysticetus;  Aleut,  ugama'xcax ')  and 

a  few  echini  shells.  In  the  right  angle  of  this  layer,  kitchen  refuse  was  more  evident  than  at  the 
front  of  the  shaft.  Here  were  found  mollusk  and  echini  shells  and  bones  of  fish  and  birds  in  equal 
quantity.  Of  bird-bones,  those  of  uriles  were  most  prominent.  Some  parts  of  this  layer  consisted  of 
pure  kitchen  refuse,  while  others  were  kitchen  refuse  intermixed  with  earth. 

(11)  0.25  meter. — A  layer  of  pure  sand  with  no  trace  of  human  refuse. 

In  this  pit,  aside  from  the  skeleton  which  will  be  referred  to  later,  there  were 
found  80  objects.  For  the  following,  the  depth  at  which  they  were  found  could  be 
ascertained.  Near  the  skeleton,  in  layer  3,  a  marble  labret  (fig.  84),  a  bone  labret 
(fig.  87),  an  arrow-head  of  andesitic  obsidian  (plate  15,  fig.  21),  two  bone  prongs 
of  a  bird-dart  (plate  24,  figs.  41,  42),  a  stone  carving  of  a  whale  (fig.  80),  a  whet¬ 
stone  (1003),  bone  dart-prongs  (1002,  1004),  a  bone  tool  for  chipping  stone 
(fig.  41a).  In  layer  4  were  found  a  stone  lamp  (1639),  a  bone  lamp  (plate  20,  fig.  2), 
a  bone  needle  (plate  28,  fig.  21),  and  a  bone  dart-prong  barbed  on  one  side  only 
(1362).  A  bone  scraper  (1680)  was  found  in  layer  6,  while  in  layer  7  were  found 
a  bone  wedge  and  a  bone  head  of  a  fish-spear  (1028).  A  stone  dart-head  (plate  15, 
fig.  22)  and  a  bone  section  of  a  throwing-lance  (plate  26,  fig.  42)  were  found  in 
layer  8.  In  the  ninth  layer  a  bone  root-digger  was  found  (plate  26,  fig.  1 ).  In  the  last 
or  tenth  layer  were  found  a  bone  head  for  a  fishing-spear  (plate  24,  fig.  51 ),  two  bone 
awls  (1031,  1032),  a  bone  scraper  (1070),  a  bone  prong  of  a  bird-dart  (plate  24, 
fig.  40),  the  curved  head  and  base  of  a  bone  fish-hook  (plate  25,  fig.  48  and  No.  1073), 
and  a  whetstone  for  sharpening  bone  awls  and  needles  (fig.  38). 

On  the  slope  of  the  hill  leading  to  the  lower  village  we  dug  a  pit  (No.  3),  10  by 
7.9  meters.  The  depth  of  the  shaft  was  4.5  meters.  A  model  of  a  part  of  this  pit — 
its  northeastern  side  from  the  upper  edge  to  a  depth  of  1.9  meters,  where  the  skele¬ 
ton  was  found — is  now  on  exhibition  in  the  Ethnographical  Division  of  the  Rumian- 
zev  Museum  in  Moscow.  Materials  for  the  model,  dry  kitchen-refuse  together  with 
the  specimens  excavated,  were  obtained  on  the  spot.  The  model  was  constructed  in 
natural  size  by  the  sculptor  P.  P.  Kamensky;  a  photograph  is  shown  in  plate  10. 
As  will  be  seen,  the  layers  have  been  lettered.  They  contain  the  following  remains : 


32 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


(1)  Mold,  containing  plant-roots  and  other  organic 

remains. 

(2)  A  mixed  layer  of  fish-bones  and  echini  and  mol- 

lusk  shells. 

(3)  Fish-bones. 

(4)  Echini  and  mollusks. 

(5)  Fish-bones  (in  the  right  corner  of  the  section). 


(6)  Echini. 

(7)  A  thin  layer  of  mold  containing  no  refuse. 

(8)  Echini. 

(9)  Fish-bones  and  echini  shells. 

(10)  Echini  and  mollusk  shells  and  fish-bones;  the 
skeleton  in  a  squatting  position. 


Beneath  the  skeleton  were  found  many  bones  of  cod  and  halibut  and  a  few 
echini  shells.  Bones  of  birds  and  sea-mammals  were  scattered  throughout  all  the 
layers  down  to  the  undisturbed  soil.  Among  the  implements  found  were  many  bone 
wedges,  and  at  a  depth  of  4.3  meters,  where  the  yellow  sand  began  to  appear,  a  small 
stone  lamp  was  uncovered. 

In  the  upper  village,  besides  Pits  2  and  3,  three  ula'kax'  were  excavated  in  which 
were  found  skeletons  to  be  described  later.  Six  pits  were  excavated  in  the  lower 
village — a  small  pit  in  which  whale-bones  were  set  up  in  cone-shape  stood,  a  large 
pit,  and  4  small  ones. 

Pit  1,  which  contained  the  cone  of  whale-bones,  was  the  first  excavated. 
However,  we  abandoned  this  place  and  turned  to  the  excavation  of  the  upper  village, 
and  after  completing  our  work  there  returned  to  Pit  1.  The  whale-bone  cone  stood 
on  the  edge  of  the  pit,  with  earth  covering  the  lower  ends  of  the  bones  to  about  1.55 
meters  of  their  length.  The  best-preserved  piece  was  found  to  be  2.7  meters  long. 
The  conical  framework  of  whale-bone  was  strongly  reminiscent  of  a  Yukaghir  tent- 
frame  ;  however,  these  had  not  served  as  the  framework  for  a  ceiling,  but  had  been 
stacked  for  future  use  in  building.  Since  they  had  not  been  used  for  a  long  time, 
their  lower  ends  were  covered  with  earth  and  refuse  (plate  3,  fig.  3).  The  bones 
were  the  lower  jaws  of  large  whales  and  had  been  prepared,  as  usual  for  rafters 
and  beams,  by  perforating  the  ends  for  tying  together,  polishing,  and  decorating 
the  sides  with  grooved  channels. 

After  the  removal  of  the  whale-jaws,  we  proceeded  with  the  excavation  of 
Pit  1.  Strata  bearing  cultural  remains  were  uncovered  to  a  depth  of  3.6  meters,  at 
which  depth  we  found  undisturbed  soil,  a  pure  clayey  sand.  As  was  the  case  with 
Pit  2,  in  the  various  layers  of  Pit  1  we  found  bones  of  sea-mammals  intermingled 
with  other  refuse,  which  in  this  pit  consisted  mainly  of  bird  and  fish  bones  and 
echini  and  mollusks. 

Eight  pits,  the  largest  seen  at  any  of  the  ancient  village  sites  examined,  were 
found  at  the  lower  Aglagax  village.  Of  these,  3  large  pits  were  of  the  same  size. 
One  excavated,  Pit  4,  was  29.9  by  10.7  meters,  with  its  longitudinal  axis  from  north¬ 
east  to  southwest.  It  is  possible  that  these  depressions  were  the  remains  of  large 
dwellings  constructed  after  the  advent  of  the  Russians,  who  very  often  segregated 
parties  of  Aleut  hunters  in  one  of  these  dwellings  called  caserns.  Yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  excavation  of  this  pit  revealed  culture-layers  to  a  depth  of  4.3  meters,  which 
might  be  regarded  as  evidence  of  the  great  age  of  the  site.  But  it  should  be  added 
that  the  section  did  not  reveal  any  considerable  layers  of  kitchen-refuse  or  other 
remains.  There  were  very  few  echini,  and  these  were  in  thin  strata;  neither  were 
there  many  bones  of  birds  or  sea  mammals  and  these  were  mingled  in  fat  earth. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  6 


i.  Section  of  pit  at  ancient  village  site  Xatacxan,  Amaknax  Island.  Depth.  5.1  meters. 

2  to  5.  Parts  of  section  of  Pit  1  of  Ugludax  site,  Umnak  Island,  showing  echini  and  mollusk  shells. 


Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


33 


More  numerous  were  the  bones  of  cod  and  halibut  Only  20  objects  of  stone  or  bone 
were  found,  and  in  the  uppermost  layer  a  fragment  of  a  porcelain  cup,  evidently 
Russian,  was  uncovered. 

The  small  pits,  almost  circular  in  form,  which  were  supposed  to  be  ula'kax', 
i.  e.,  burial-lodges,  contained  no  skeletal  remains.  Kitchen  refuse,  too,  was  very 
meager.  In  one  were  found  glass  beads  and  pieces  of  brass,  while  in  another  a  bone 
post  driven  into  the  earth  had  been  notched  with  an  iron  ax.  Obviously,  these  small 
pits  were  the  remains  of  dwellings  of  a  later  period. 

Nutxa'kax '  Village. — On  our  return  to  Nikolskoye  village,  where  we  had  our 
headquarters  on  Umnak,  we  stopped  at  the  ancient  site  at  Nutxa'kax'  (see  map  of 
Umnak  Island).  On  the  sea-coast  there  was  then  an  earth  lodge  in  which  the  Aleut, 
Mark  Shepetin,  lived.  Not  far  from  this  lodge  was  a  small  river  which  provided 
fresh  water  for  the  village.  The  ancient  village  was  situated  above  Shepetin’s  lodge, 
on  a  hill  20  meters  above  sea-level.  There  were  no  large  depressions,  and  we  were 
told  that  the  pits  were  of  ula'kax',  or  burial  lodges.  In  old  times,  one  or  two  families 
had  evidently  lived  here,  and  the  pits  were  often  changed,  or  else  the  village  was 
inhabited  only  during  part  of  the  year.  There  were  15  pits  in  all,  for  the  most  part 
burial  lodges,  to  judge  from  their  size.  Refuse  in  these  depressions  reached  no  great 
depth.  Two  larger  pits,  evidently  the  remains  of  dwellings,  and  4  of  smaller  size, 
supposedly  the  remains  of  burial  lodges,  were  excavated. 

Strata  bearing  remains  reached  only  to  a  depth  of  1.5  meters  in  Pit  1.  The 
upper  layer  of  mold  contained  only  a  small  amount  of  mixed  kitchen  refuse.  The 
second  layer  consisted  of  fish-bones;  the  third,  of  mixed  refuse;  the  fourth  of  fish¬ 
bones;  the  fifth  of  mixed  refuse.  The  prevalence  of  fish-bones  may  serve  to  prove 
that  the  settlement  was  for  summer  only,  since  fish  formed  the  most  important  item 
in  the  summer  diet. 

Pit  2  was  excavated  to  a  depth  of  2  meters,  but  remains  were  found  only  to  a 
depth  of  1.8  meters.  The  layers  followed  almost  the  same  order  as  those  in  Pit  1. 
Along  the  southern  wall  of  the  pit,  at  a  depth  of  1.2  meters,  were  found  6  skeletons. 
(See  Chapter  IV.) 

Four  of  the  so-called  ula'kax'  were  excavated.  In  one,  nothing  was  found; 
evidently,  it  had  not  been  a  burial  place  and  may  possibly  have  been  a  food-storage 
pit.  In  the  remaining  3  ula'kax',  fragments  of  skeletons  were  found. 

Ukix  Village. — Like  the  present  village  of  Nikolskoye,  the  site  of  Ukix  was 
situated  on  the  southwestern  part  of  Umnak,  a  4  hours’  walk  from  Nikolskoye  to 
the  northeast.  Two  trails  lead  from  Nikolskoye  to  Ukix;  the  shorter  one  passes  over 
high  hills,  the  longer  is  more  winding  and  is  nearer  the  coast.  The  village  was 
situated  15  meters  above  sea-level,  on  a  hill  overlooking  a  small  bay,  and  departs 
from  the  usual  ancient  Aleut  custom  of  locating  a  village  between  two  bays.  Fresh 
water  was  obtainable  from  a  lake  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  the  village 
stood.  At  the  time  of  our  examination,  the  Aleut  Ivan  Cherkashin  had  a  winter 
earth-lodge  at  this  place,  where  he  spent  the  months  of  November  to  January  hunt¬ 
ing  foxes.  When  the  weather  is  favorable  he  fishes  in  the  sea  from  his  boat. 


34 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


At  this  site  we  found  traces  of  14  dwellings.  In  the  course  of  time  some  of  the 
pits  had  been  so  filled  and  leveled  that  the  depressions  in  the  middle  and  elevations 
along  the  edges  were  scarcely  perceptible.  As  noted  at  other  ancient  sites,  neither 
the  size  nor  the  form  of  the  depressions  were  similar.  Some  of  the  pits  were  oblong, 
while  others  were  almost  circular.  As  has  been  stated  before,  the  present  Aleut 
assert  that  the  ancient  Aleut  had  no  separate  kashims ,8  as  do  the  Eskimo.  Among 
the  larger  pits  were  three  oblong  depressions  of  almost  the  same  size.  The  largest 
of  these  three  (Pit  3)  was  excavated.  In  all,  3  large  and  5  small  pits,  which  could 
be  regarded  as  ula'kax',  were  excavated  at  Ukix. 

The  excavations  here  disclosed  only  shallow  culture-layers;  at  a  depth  of  7  or 
8  feet,  undisturbed  soil,  bearing  no  evidences  of  human  activities,  was  reached. 
Nevertheless,  it  can  not  be  said  that  Ukix  belonged  to  a  later  period  than  did  the 
sites  where  deeper  relic-bearing  layers  were  found.  The  slight  depression  of  the 
pits  before  excavation,  bears  witness  of  their  old  age.  All  the  layers  contained  bones 
of  birds  and  sea-mammals  scattered  amongst  echini  and  mollusks  and  fish-bones. 
Some  of  the  larger  pits  had  supplementary  circular  depressions  at  the  side  which 
may  have  served  as  kitchens,  caches,  sleeping-rooms,  or  hiding-places  for  women 
and  children  in  case  of  attack. 

On  the  western  part  of  the  site,  Pit  1  was  excavated  to  a  depth  of  2.3  meters. 
The  middle  of  the  section  of  the  southeastern  wall  is  shown  in  plate  5,  fig.  2.  On  this 
side  culture  remains  reached  a  depth  of  only  2  meters.  The  contents  of  the  layers 
were  as  follows : 

(1)  0.5  meter. — Mold  intermingled  with  plant-roots 

and  a  small  quantity  of  kitchen  refuse. 

(2)  0.1  meter. — Kitchen  refuse  and  a  thin  layer  of 

mold.  The  refuse  consisted  chiefly  of  cod 
and  halibut  bones  and  shells  of  mollusks 
( Acmaea  patina  and  Mytilus  edulis )  and 
echini. 

(3)  0.36  meter. — Mixed  kitchen  refuse  with  fish-bones 

predominating. 

Separated  by  a  narrow  wall  from  Pit  1  was  Pit  2.  A  section  of  the  north¬ 
western  wall  is  shown  in  plate  3,  figure  1  and  plate  4,  figure  3.  The  skeletal  finds 
in  these  pits  will  be  discussed  later  (Chapter  IV).  Specimen-bearing  strata  in  Pit  2 
were  as  follows : 


(4)  0.2  meter. — Earth  containing  a  small  quantity  of 

kitchen  refuse. 

(5)  0.31  meter. — Echini,  mollusca,  and  fish-bones,  with 

a  slight  admixture  of  earth. 

(6)  0.25  meter. — Yellow  sand,  containing  no  speci¬ 

mens. 

(7)  0.08  meter. — The  beginning  of  a  layer  of  gravel. 


(1)  0.85  meter. — Mold  containing  a  small  quantity  of 

fish  and  sea-mammal  bones. 

(2)  0.2  meter. — Fish-bones. 

(3)  0.06  meter. — Echini. 

(4)  0.25  meter. — Mold,  intermingled  with  bones  of 

birds  and  sea-mammals. 


(5)  0.65  meter. — Echini,  mollusks,  fish,  and  bird  bones. 

(6)  0.9  meter. — A  narrow  strip  of  mold. 

(7)  0.3  meter. — Pure  yellow  sand. 

(8)  0.1  meter. — Small  waterworn  pebbles,  which  evi¬ 

dently  had  been  covered  by  the  sea  at 
some  earlier  period. 


From  the  above  it  appears  that  this  refuse  heap  had  a  depth  of  only  2.1  meters. 

Of  the  5  small  depressions,  2  (Nos.  1  and  4),  revealed  no  traces  of  refuse.  It  is 
difficult  to  explain  the  use  of  these  pits ;  they  may  possibly  have  served  for  storing 
food.  The  small  pits,  Nos.  2  and  5,  appear  to  have  been  burial  lodges.  Pit  3  con¬ 
tained  no  skeletal  remains,  but  in  one  of  its  walls  were  found  bones  of  whales,  echini, 
mollusks,  and  fish-bones,  as  in  the  large  pits. 


6  Special  large  houses  for  gatherings,  festivals,  and  dancing. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  7 


.  Members  of  the  expedition  and  Aleut  laborers  crossing  a  mountain  ridge  on  Attu  Island.  4.  A  cave  on  a  small  island  called  Kixsin  in  Chichagov  Bay, 
Camp  at  a  village  site,  Attu  Island.  Attu  Island. 

!.  Beginning  excavation  of  a  pit  at  Sin  village  site,  Attu  Island.  The  frame  of  the  roof  is  5.  Goltzef  Bay,  Attu  Island, 
of  whalebone.  6.  A  cave  in  Goltzef  Bay. 


Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


35 


A  large  oblong  pit  (No.  3)  was  12.9  meters  long  and  6.7  meters  wide,  with  its 
longitudinal  axis  from  west  to  east.  It  was  excavated  to  a  depth  of  7  feet,  until 
yellow  sand  was  reached.  Kitchen  refuse  turned  up  sporadically.  Below  the  yellow 
sand  layer,  near  the  western  wall,  were  several  pits  1  foot  in  diameter  and  about  3 
feet  deep.  These  depressions  were  covered  with  flat  stones  and  had  evidently  served 
as  storage  places  for  edible  roots,  since  in  one  were  found  the  half-decayed  roots  of 
Polygonum  viviparum  and  Fritillaria  kamtschatica  (Aleut,  qugcu'dax '  and  alu'- 
gax ').  In  the  middle  of  the  longitudinal  axis  we  found  a  quantity  of  charcoal, 
possibly  the  remains  of  a  fireplace  under  the  entrance-hole  in  the  roof,  although 
the  ancient  Aleut  did  not  heat  their  living  rooms  and  food  was  cooked  in  separate 
earth  lodges.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  among  the  objects  found  in  Pit  3  were  14 
stone  lamps  which  may  have  served  to  light  the  separate  family  compartments  or 
for  the  general  illumination  of  the  dwelling  during  social  festivities  or  contests. 

Uglu'dax'. — Uglu'dax'  is  situated  to  the  south-southwest  of  the  village  of 
Nikolskoye.  The  territory  between  Nikolskoye  and  Uglu'dax'  is  occupied  by  three 
lakes,  separated  from  one  another  by  narrow  necks  of  land,  about  125  paces  each,  and 
connected  by  small  streams.  Beyond  these  lakes,  to  the  south,  is  a  whole  series  of 
lakes,  rising  one  above  the  other  in  terraces,  each  successively  draining  into  the 
other,  until  the  Nikolskoye  village  lake  is  reached.  This  lake  empties  directly  into 
the  sea  by  a  small  rivulet.  Uglu'dax'  is  on  the  isthmus  between  the  third  and  fourth 
lakes,  counting  from  the  sea,  and  turning  to  the  northwest  (see  map).  The  inhabi¬ 
tants  of  this  village  procured  fresh  water  from  the  lake,  which  was  16  meters  above 
sea-level.  The  Aleut  informed  us  that  Uglu'dax'  was  an  “  odinochka,”  7  i.  e.,  a  dwell¬ 
ing  for  one  or  two  families.  Possibly  a  few  families  lived  here  for  a  part  of  the  year. 
At  the  time  of  our  visit  the  site  was  not  occupied ;  according  to  the  Aleut,  this  was 
not  the  case  when  the  Russians  arrived.  Still  there  are  traces  of  kitchen-gardens 
made  under  the  tutelage  of  the  Russians.  The  present-day  Aleut  plant  potatoes  and 
turnips  far  away  from  the  present  dwellings  on  ancient  village  sites. 

However,  in  the  excavation  of  this  village  site  no  traces  of  iron  implements  or 
other  objects  of  Russian  origin  were  found;  all  our  finds  belonged  to  the  Stone  Age. 
Though  it  is  true  that  no  deep  refuse  sections  were  found  at  Uglu'dax',  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  the  site  was  later  than  others  with  sections  of  greater  depth. 
It  is  quite  possible  the  village  was  abandoned  in  olden  times.  Some  sections  con¬ 
tained  deeper  layers  of  echini  and  mollusk  shells  than  ever  before  noted  by  the 
writer.  This  may  point  to  the  fact  that  the  village  was  inhabited  only  during  the 
seasons  when  the  chief  food  consisted  of  mollusks  and  sea-urchins. 

Four  pits  were  excavated  in  Uglu'dax'.  Pit  1  was  16.8  meters  by  6.7  meters, 
with  its  longitudinal  axis  from  northwest  to  southeast.  In  the  section  at  the  north¬ 
western  wall  were  found  2  skeletons.  The  trench  was  dug  to  a  depth  of  3.3  meters 
(plate  5,  fig.  3). 


7  A  Russian  word  meaning  single,  sole,  person  living  in  solitude. 


36 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


The  strata  from  the  top  down  contained  the  following: 


(1)  1. 1  meters. — Mold  with  a  small  quantity  of  mixed  refuse. 

(2)  0.3  meter. — Fish-bones  and  mollusk  and  echini  shells  without  any  admixture  of  earth. 

(3)  0.15  meter. — Fish-bones  only. 

(4)  0.1  meter. — Fish-bones  and  mollusk  and  echini  shells. 

(5)  0.07  meter. — Fish-bones. 

(6)  1.4  meters. — A  compact  layer  of  kitchen  refuse,  chiefly  shells  of  mollusks  and  echini.  The  mollusks  were 

intermingled  with  the  echini,  while  in  some  spots  mollusks  and  fish-bones  formed  distinct  narrow 
layers.  Scattered  throughout  the  whole  were  bones  of  sea  mammals  and  birds.  In  two  spots  narrow 
layers  of  mold  were  found  containing  decayed  organic  matter,  but  sea-urchins  predominated  in  the 
entire  layer.  In  plate  6,  figures  2  to  5,  are  shown  different  parts  of  layer  6.  Figure  2  shows  a  strip 
of  shells  of  the  mollusk  Acmcea  patina  Esch.,  in  the  middle  of  a  layer  of  echini  and  fish-bones. 
Figure  3  shows  a  pure  stratum  of  echini,  while  in  figure  4  may  be  seen  a  dark  strip  of  cod  and 
halibut  bones  in  the  midst  of  a  heap  of  echini.  There  were  also  some  bones  of  seals  and  sea-otters. 
Figure  5  shows  a  layer  of  mixed  refuse,  in  which  echini  and  mollusks  predominated. 

(7)  0.18  meter. — An  undisturbed  layer  of  brownish  clay. 

Stone  and  bone  implements  were  found  at  various  depths,  as  follows : 

0.7  meter. — Bone  nose-pendant  (text-fig.  99)  ;  stone  arrow-point  (1547)  ;  vertebra  of  a  shark  (text-fig.  104b)  ; 

2  bone  fish-hooks  (plate  25,  figs.  46  and  47)  ;  bone  harpoon-head  (plate  24,  fig.  29). 

0.9  meter. — Bone  head  of  a  throwing  dart  (plate  24,  fig.  26)  ;  bone  buckle  (text-fig.  102)  ;  head  of  bone  lance  for 
catching  sculpin  (1526). 

1.53  meters. — Two  stone  knives  (plate  15,  figs.  32  and  38)  ;  stone  adze  (plate  15,  fig.  25). 

2.50  meters. — Large  stone  knife  (plate  15,  fig.  6)  ;  bone  wedge  (1556)  ;  2  spoons,  one  of  reindeer  antler,  the  other 
of  the  chest-bone  of  an  urile  (plate  26,  figs.  10  and  20)  ;  2  stone  sinkers  (plate  17,  figs.  8  and  20). 

2.75  meters. — Bones  of  a  sea-lion  and  charcoal. 


At  a  depth  of  3.1  meters,  2  labrets  (figs.  85  and  92c)  were  found  in  the  lower 
part  of  layer  6  in  a  heap  of  sea-urchin  shells. 

Pit  2,  on  the  slope  of  the  hill,  also  yielded  culture  remains,  but  to  a  lesser  depth. 
At  1.52  meters  the  undisturbed  soil,  a  brown  clay,  without  any  trace  of  kitchen 
refuse,  appeared.  The  refuse  consisted  of  intermingled  shells  of  echini,  fish-bones, 
bird-bones,  and  a  small  quantity  of  bones  of  sea  mammals.  In  the  middle  of  the 
section  was  a  narrow  layer  consisting  of  shells  of  echini  and  mollusks  only. 

Pit  3  was  at  the  side  of  No.  1  and  was  of  the  same  size.  Only  the  northwestern 
wall  was  excavated,  and  the  following  layers  were  uncovered : 


(1)  0.54  meter. — A  layer  of  mold,  including  a  small 

quantity  of  kitchen  refuse. 

(2)  0.35  meter. — A  layer  of  fish-bones. 

(3)  0.58  meter. — Kitchen  refuse,  without  earth,  and 

chiefly  echini,  mollusks,  and  fish-bones. 


(4)  0.16  meter. — A  layer  of  mold. 

(5)  0.05  meter. — A  layer  of  echini. 

(6)  0.42  meter. — Primeval  soil,  clayey  earth. 


Among  the  shells  of  echini  in  layers  3  and  5  were  found  the  decayed  bones  of 
sea-mammals  which  disintegrated  when  touched. 

Pit  4  was  dug  to  a  depth  of  2.7  meters;  strata  containing  remains  reached  a 
depth  of  2.55  meters.  The  strata  were  as  follows: 


(1)  0.5  meter. — Mold  with  a  small  quantity  of  echini, 

mollusks,  and  fish-bones. 

(2)  0.13  meter. — A  layer  of  compact  refuse  consisting 

of  fish-bones  and  shells  of  echini.  Also  a 
small  quantity  of  mollusk  shells. 

(3)  0.38  meter. — Mold  and  a  large  quantity  of  echini, 

mollusks,  and  fish-bones. 

(4)  0.6  meter. — Refuse  as  in  preceding  layer,  but  less 

earth  and  more  shells  of  Litorina  sitchana 
and  lamellae  of  the  chiton  Katherina 
tunicata. 


(5)  0.1  meter. — A  compact  layer  of  kitchen  refuse, 

consisting  of  echini  and  shells  of  mol¬ 
lusks,  Aetna  a  patina,  Mytilus  edulis  and 
Venus  petiti,  and  of  a  small  quantity  of 
fish-bones. 

(6)  0.87  meter. — Mollusks,  echini,  and  fish-bones  and 

narrow  layers  of  mold. 

(7)  0.12  meter. — A  layer  of  brownish  clay  without 

any  refuse. 


In  all  the  above  layers  were  found  a  small  quantity  of  bones  of  birds,  seals,  and 
whales.  A  decayed  skeleton,  whose  skull  fell  to  pieces,  was  found  at  a  depth  of  1.3 
meters.  Before  digging,  the  edges  of  the  pit  were  barely  visible,  from  which  we 
may  conclude  the  site  to  be  an  old  one. 


JOCHELSON 


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Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


37 


EXCAVATIONS  ON  AMAKNAX  ISLAND. 

Amaknax  Island  is  situated  in  Unalaska  Bay,  with  its  southern  extremity 
approaching  Captain  Cove.  It  consists  of  4  rocky  mountains,  separated  by  3  low 
and  narrow  valleys ;  the  latter  evidently  rose  from  the  sea  at  a  later  date,  connecting 
the  4  volcanic  rocks  and  forming  an  island.  The  northernmost  is  a  conical  mountain 
1,640  feet  high,  sloping  abruptly  to  the  sea.  The  low  land  between  the  rocky  heights 
of  the  island  afforded  very  suitable  places  for  settleiments.  At  the  time  of  our  visit, 
Amaknax  Island  was  uninhabited,  except  for  the  storehouses  and  houses  for  the 
employes  of  the  North  American  Commercial  Company  at  Dutch  Harbor.  Early 


Unalaska  Bay 


in  the  nineteenth  century,  in  the  time  of  Weniaminoff,  the  Aleut  settlements  had 
already  been  abandoned.  Three  ancient  village  sites  were  excavated;  two  of  them, 
Xatacxan  and  Amaknax,  were  located  on  the  middle  isthmus  of  the  island,  and 
the  third,  Tanaxtaxax,  was  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  island,  at  the  bottom 
of  a  long,  narrow,  sandy  neck  of  land,  separating  Dutch  Harbor  from  Unalaska  or 
Iliuliuk  Bay  (see  text-fig.  4). 

According  to  Weniaminoff,  there  were  three  Aleut  villages  on  Amaknax  Island 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians,8  but  he  neither  names  nor  locates  them,  so  we 
do  not  know  whether  the  villages  excavated  are  those  mentioned  by  Weniaminoff 

8  Rev.  J.  Weniaminoff,  Notes  on  the  Islands  of  the  Unalaska  District,  St.  Petersburg,  1840,  part  1,  p.  188 
(in  Russian). 


38 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


or  whether  more  than  3  villages  were  ever  in  existence  on  Amaknax.  The  Unalaska 
Aleut  informed  us  that  the  sites  excavated  by  us  were  very  ancient. 

When  excavating  on  Amaknax  we  had  our  headquarters  on  Unalaska  and 
traveled  back  and  forth  in  a  motor-boat. 

Amaknax  Village  Site. — Amaknax  was  evidently  a  small  village.  It  was 
approximately  a  mile  from  another  old  village,  Xatacxan.  The  site,  bearing  the 
name  of  the  island,  Amaknax,  was  situated  on  a  hill  about  12  feet  above  sea-level. 
One  large  and  three  small  pits  were  excavated.  The  large  depression  was  19.5 
meters  long,  7  meters  wide,  and  about  1  meter  deep  before  excavation.  Its  longi¬ 
tudinal  axis  lay  from  northeast  to  southwest.  The  specimen-bearing  layer  was  not 
thick.  The  pit  was  dug  out  to  a  depth  of  3  meters,  though  the  refuse  reached  a 
depth  of  only  2.4  meters,  beneath  which  was  a  stratum  of  compact  gray  clay. 
Sectioning  of  this  pit  revealed  some  peculiarities,  but  our  finding  in  no  way  cor¬ 
respond  to  Doctor  Dali’s  description  of  succeeding  layers,  as  noted  by  him  in  his 
diggings  on  the  island.  (See  Chapter  VI.)  The  clayey  earth  was  so  hard  that  before 
digging  with  spades  it  had  to  be  broken  up  with  picks.  Kitchen  refuse  in  irregular 
layers  appeared.  There  were  few  echini  and  many  mollusks,  chiefly  Mytilus  edulis. 
Of  fish,  there  were  the  bones  of  halibut  and  cod.  We  also  found  bones  of  sea-otters 
and  of  large  and  small  whales.  Generally  speaking,  the  kitchen  refuse  was  mixed 
up,  but  in  the  deepest  part  of  the  trench  we  found  bones  of  sea  mammals  and  whales 
only  and  in  the  upper  layers  shells  of  echini  and  mollusks.  At  1.4  meters  we  found 
a  decayed  skeleton,  lying,  as  will  be  seen  later,  in  the  usual  squatting  position.  The 
bones  of  a  large  whale  which  had  at  one  time  served  as  the  framework  of  the  roof 
of  an  underground  dwelling  were  found  at  a  depth  of  1.9  meters.  From  this  we  may 
conclude  that  the  dwelling  under  the  whale-bones  belonged  to  a  generation  older 
than  that  to  which  the  skeleton  belonged.  The  three  small  pits  excavated  on  the 
Amaknax  site  yielded  no  remains. 

Xatacxan  Site. — This  site  was  located  on  the  same  isthmus  as  the  Amaknax 
village  and  quite  close  to  a  burial-cave  examined  by  Doctor  Dali  (plate  9,  figs.  1 
and  3).  At  this  site  we  excavated  only  one  pit  to  a  depth  of  5.1  meters  (plate  6, 
fig.  1),  in  which  the  culture  strata  reached  a  depth  of  5.05  meters.  The  contents  of 
the  successive  layers  were  as  follows : 

(1)  0.4  meter. — Mold. 

(2)  1.3  meters. — Mixed  kitchen  refuse,  with  scarcely  any  admixture  of  earth,  consisting  of  fish-bones  and 

mollusks  (mainly  Mytilus  edulis)  ;  very  few  echini. 

(3)  0.35  meter. — Fat  dark  clayey  earth  containing  bones  of  sea  mammals  (whales,  sea-lions,  sea-otters,  and 

seals)  and  birds  (mainly  uriles)  ;  very  few  mollusks. 

(4)  0.65  meter. — Shells  of  mollusks  ( Mytilus  edulis,  Acmeea  patina,  and  Venus  petiti,  bones  of  fishes,  birds, 

and  of  a  small  quantity  of  sea-mammals. 

(5)  0.15  meter. — A  layer  of  fish-bones  and  a  small  quantity  of  echini. 

(6)  1. 1  meters.— A  layer  of  mixed  kitchen  refuse,  very  few  echini,  with  shells  of  mollusks  and  bird-bones 

predominating. 

(7)  0.3  meter. — A  layer  of  cod-bones. 

(8)  0.5  meter. — A  layer  of  mollusks,  bones  of  birds,  sea-lions,  and  seals.  , 

(9)  0.3  meter. — Bones  of  whales  and  birds  and  shells  of  mollusks. 

(10)  0.05  meter. — A  layer  of  yellow  sand  containing  no  refuse. 

Particular  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  whale-bones,  which  provided 
material  for  the  roofs  of  underground  dwellings,  and  which  were  found  at  different 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  9 


1.  Excavations  at  the  ancient  village  site,  Amaknax,  situated  on  a  neck  of  land  on  Amaknax  Island. 

2.  Bird’s-eye  view  of  neck  of  land  on  Amaknax  Island. 

3.  Burial  cave  on  Amaknax  Island  investigated  by  Doctor  Dali. 


Excavations  of  Ancient  Village  Sites. 


39 


depths  in  this  pit.  Thus,  in  layer  4,  at  a  depth  of  2.5  meters,  we  found  bones  of  the 
Pacific  right  whale  with  perforated  ends  and  longitudinal  grooves;  other  bones  of 
this  species  were  found  in  layer  6  at  a  depth  of  3.4  meters.  Finally,  at  the  very 
bottom  of  layer  9,  were  found  the  vertebrae  of  a  large  whale.  These  bones  were 
evidently  the  remains  of  underground  dwellings  of  different  periods. 

The  following  specimens  were  found  at  the  depths  indicated:  Two  stone  knives, 
2.2  meters  (plate  16,  figs.  4  and  7)  ;  a  stone  sinker,  2.6  meters  (plate  17,  fig.  4) ;  a 
bone  wedge,  3  meters  (plate  26,  fig.  2). 

This  pit,  like  those  on  the  Amaknax  site,  were  very  difficult  to  excavate.  The 
fat  clayey  earth  held  the  specimens  firmly,  so  that  we  were  compelled  to  break  the 
earth  with  picks  at  the  risk  of  injuring  the  bone  and  stone  objects  found. 

Tanaxtaxax  Site. — Tanaxtaxax  was  located  at  the  head  of  a  long  neck  of  land 
on  a  hill  approximately  20  feet  above  sea-level.  There  were  traces  of  about  12  pits, 
none  of  them  very  large.  The  depressions  had  been  almost  entirely  filled  with  wind- 
carried  earth  and  made  it  difficult  to  define  their  borders  and  in  addition  bears  testi¬ 
mony  to  the  great  age  of  the  pits.  The  Aleut  also  believed  these  pits  to  be  very  old, 
as  did  Doctor  Dali,  who  had  excavated  at  this  site.  Some  of  the  depressions  were 
overgrown  by  the  gardens  of  the  people  of  Unalaska.  To  the  west  of  this  site  was 
a  salt-water  lake  which  had  evidently  been  part  of  the  sea  before  the  isthmus  rose 
and  cut  it  off.  The  only  available  fresh  water  is  from  a  'small  brook  with  its  source 
in  the  northernmost  mountain  of  the  island. 

One  pit  in  the  northern  part  of  this  site  was  excavated.  A  trench  was  dug  4.9 
meters  deep  and  strata  bearing  remains  reached  a  depth  of  4.8  meters.  The  layers, 
from  the  surface  down,  were  as  follows : 

(1)  0.95  meter. — Mold  containing  a  small  quantity  of  halibut  and  cod  bones  and  shells  of  Mytilus  edulis.  There 

were  very  few  echini-shells  and  of  sea  mammals  only  the  bones  of  a  fur-seal  were  found. 

(2)  0.6  meter. — A  small  quantity  of  earth  and  much  kitchen  refuse,  chiefly  cod-bones.  This  was  accompanied 

by  shells  of  mollusks  ( Mytilus  edulis  and  Venus  petiti),  and  bones  of  fur-seals,  sea-lions,  seals,  and 
whales,  and  a  small  quantity  of  bones  of  uriles  and  murres  ( Uria  arra ). 

(3)  0.6  meter. — A  layer  of  mold  containing  a  small  quantity  of  shells  of  Venus  petiti  and  echini.  Some  sea-lion 

bones  were  also  found. 

(4)  1.25  meters. — Little  earth  and  much  kitchen  refuse,  among  which  were  bones  of  whales,  sea-lions,  and  fish, 

and  shells  of  mollusks  Mytilus  edulis  and  Venus  petiti,  and  a  small  quantity  of  echini. 

(5)  0.3  meter. — A  layer  containing  only  bones  of  sea-lions  and  cod  and  shells  of  Mytilus  edulis  and  Venus  petiti, 

with  no  admixture  of  earth. 

(6)  0.5  meter. — A  layer  of  bones  of  cod  and  shells  of  Venus  petiti. 

(7)  0.1  meter. — A  layer  of  echini. 

(8)  0.5  meter. — A  small  quantity  of  earth,  bones  of  sea-lions  and  cod,  and  shells  of  M.  edulis  and  Venus  petiti. 

(9)  0.1  meter. — A  layer  of  shingle  similar  to  the  character  of  the  sea-bottom. 

In  all  layers,  the  soil  was  clayey  and  dark,  the  result  of  organic  decomposition. 
The  earth,  as  elsewhere  on  Amaknax  Island,  was  so  hard  that  it  had  to  be  broken  up 
with  picks,  and,  in  addition  the  excavations  were  hampered  by  the  presence  of  large 
stones,  evidently  brought  to  line  the  walls,  some  bearing  traces  of  red  paint. 
Specimens  were  found  at  the  following  depths : 

A  prong  for  a  bird-dart  (plate  24,  fig.  5),  0.6  meter. 

Two  stone  adzes  of  greenish  quartzite  (plate  15,  fig.  26,  and  text-fig.  25),  1  meter. 

A  woman’s  knife,  2  meters. 

A  bone  handle  (2122)  and  stone  knife  (text-fig.  22),  2.4  meters. 

A  stone  lamp  (plate  18,  fig.  2),  2.6  meters. 

A  stone  sinker  (plate  17,  fig.  15),  3  meters. 


4 


40 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


EXCAVATIONS  ON  UKNADAX  ISLAND. 

The  small  island,  Uknadax,  is  now  called  Hog  Island,  because  the  Russian 
American  Company  kept  hogs  there.  It  lies  in  Unalaska  Bay  between  Amaknax 
Island  and  Natykin  Bay  (see  map  of  Unalaska  Bay,  text-fig.  4).  The  ancient 
village  was  located  on  the  southeastern  side  of  the  island.  During  our  visit,  the 
Unalaska  Aleut  Nikifor  Dyakonov  lived  on  the  island.  Some  years  before  an  Ameri¬ 
can  trader  had  established  a  blue-fox  farm  on  the  island,  bringing  the  foxes  from 
St.  Paul  Island.  However,  the  undertaking  failed,  since  there  was  insufficient  food 
for  the  foxes.  It  is  possible  also  that  the  foxes  were  secretly  hunted  by  the  Unalas- 
kans.  So  the  American  abandoned  the  island,  presenting  the  house  to  Dyakonov. 
Traces  of  old  dwellings  were  found  on  the  shore,  as  well  as  higher  up  on  the  hill. 
On  the  shore  were  indications  of  large  oblong  dwellings,  but  on  the  hill  the  pits  were 
round  and  small.  According  to  Dyakonov,  the  Aleut  had  lived  on  the  hill  when 
under  Russian  domination.  We  excavated  the  two  largest  pits  on  the  shore;  one 
was  28.3  by  5.5  meters,  the  other  20.4  by  5.2  meters.  The  longitudinal  axis  of  both 
large  pits  lay  from  east  to  west.  Before  digging,  the  depth  of  both  pits  was  about 
a  meter.  At  the  sides  of  the  large  pits  was  a  row  of  smaller  depressions  which  may 
have  served  as  sleeping-places  for  children,  with  passages  to  the  main  pit,  or  storage- 
places  for  food.  In  the  large  depression  the  refuse  was  only  2  feet  deep,  but  the 
smaller  pits  seemed  to  have  served  especially  for  the  reception  of  refuse. 

The  digging  of  the  two  large  oblong  pits  revealed  similar  situations ;  on  either 
side  were  8  small  pits,  3  to  8  feet  in  diameter.  In  the  smaller  pits  on  the  southern 
side  was  kitchen  refuse  and  whale-bones,  which  presumably  had  served  as  material 
for  the  ceiling.  Three  of  the  small  pits,  evidently  for  burial,  contained  quite  decayed 
skeletons.  The  remaining  5  pits  contained  no  skeletal  remains.  It  is  difficult  to 
assign  a  use  for  them.  They  may  possibly  have  been  sleeping-places  for  children, 
which  communicated  with  the  main  pit  by  an  underground  passage.  According  to 
tradition,  such  compartments  were  skilfully  hidden  and  covered  by  mats,  so  that 
attacking  enemies  could  not  discover  them.  The  pits  to  the  north  of  the  large  oblong 
one  contained  no  skeletal  remains,  but  were  full  of  kitchen  refuse  and  may  have  been 
especially  dug  for  this  purpose.  At  the  western  and  eastern  walls  of  the  large  pit 
was  a  pit  somewhat  larger  than  those  to  the  south  and  north.  These  contained  some 
kitchen  refuse,  but  not  in  such  quantities  as  in  the  small  pits.  These  last  two  pits 
had  evidently  been  storage-places  or  possibly  special  cooking-lodges. 

The  village  site  was  5  meters  above  sea-level.  All  the  pits  contained  a  con¬ 
siderable  number  of  large  stones,  which  evidently  supported  the  posts  of  whale- 
jaws.  All  the  bones  found,  including  those  of  sea  mammals  and  whales,  were  in  a 
much  decayed  state.  Many  of  the  whale-bones,  which  are  usually  distinguished  by 
their  hardness  and  solidity,  fell  to  pieces  when  handled.  This  bears  witness  to  the 
comparatively  old  age  of  the  site,  despite  the  fact  the  refuse  layer  was  not  deep. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  10 


Model  of  section  of  Pit  3  on  the  ancient  village  site,  Aglagax,  Umnak  Island,  with  a  skeleton  found  at  a  depth  of  1.9  meters.  (For  a 
description  of  layers,  see  p.  31.)  The  model  is  on  exhibition  in  the  Rumiantzev  Museum  in  Moscow. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

HUMAN  REMAINS  IN  KITCHEN  MIDDENS. 

At  present  the  Aleut,  as  devout  Christians,  inter  their  dead  in  coffins  in  ceme¬ 
teries,  according  to  the  Russian  custom.  They  show  no  evidence  of  respect  either 
for  their  former  mode  of  burial  or  for  the  graves  of  their  non-baptized  ancestors. 
Influenced  by  the  Russian  missionaries,  the  Aleut  called  their  “  impious  ”  dead 
ancestors  “  propastchi,”  meaning  “  perished,”  and  referring  to  dead  animals  only. 
These  circumstances  greatly  facilitated  the  work  of  excavating  ancient  Aleut  graves ; 
the  Aleut  laborers  dug  the  graves  without  fear  and  even  in  a  spirit  of  flippancy. 
Thus,  Unalaska  Aleut  would  say  to  their  tribesmen  of  other  islands:  “Well,  we 
will  now  dig  out  your  great-grandfathers,”  and  the  great-grandsons  were  not  dis¬ 
pleased.  The  Aleut  indifferently  washed  the  bones  of  their  pagan  ancestors  before 
drying  them  out,  and  it  was  only  on  Umnak  that  the  old  people  asked  us  not  to  wash 
the  bones  in  the  sea,  rivers,  or  lakes  because  the  fish  might  disappear  from  the 
waters. 

Of  the  two  principal  methods  of  disposal  of  the  dead,  aiming  either  at  the 
preservation  or  the  destruction  of  corpses,  the  Aleut  practiced  the  first  method. 
They  did  not  employ  the  methods  prevailing  among  the  tribes  of  northeastern 
Siberia1  (with  the  exception  of  the  Yukaghir  2)  and  among  some  of  the  North 
American  Indians,3  cremation  or  discarding  the  corpse  to  be  devoured  by  beasts  and 
birds.  The  ancient  Aleut  preserved  bodies  of  their  dead  with  great  care,  a  cus¬ 
tom  founded  first  on  their  beliefs  and  secondly  on  the  psychical  peculiarities  of  the 
tribe. 

According  to  the  religious  concepts  of  the  Aleut,  the  soul  (an'gix')  continues 
to  have  some  connection  with  the  dead  body;  therefore  the  burial  place  must  be  a 
reminder  of  the  dwelling  of  the  living,  i.  e.,  an  earth  lodge,  or  a  place  where  hunters 
spent  their  time  when  hunting  sea  mammals  far  from  their  village,  i.  e.,  caves. 

On  the  other  hand,  relatives,  parents  and  children,  and  husbands  and  wives 
were  greatly  attached  to  each  other.  Parting  with  the  dead  was  deferred  as  long  as 
possible ;  the  corpses  were  kept  in  the  dwellings,  relatives  sitting  nearby  and  watch¬ 
ing  and  sleeping  near  them.  Fear  of  the  dead,  at  least  of  related  dead,  was  unknown 
to  the  Aleut,  since  their  conception  of  those  departed  was  not  that  of  hostile  spirits 

1  See  W.  Bogoras,  The  Chukchee,  p.  526;  W.  Jochelson,  The  Koryak,  p.  104;  S.  Krasheninnikov,  Description 
of  the  Kamchatka  Country,  St.  Petersburg,  1818,  Vol.  II,  p.  184  (in  Russian)  ;  G.  W.  Steller,  Beschreibung  von 
dem  Lande  Kamtschatka,  Frankfurt  und  Leipzig,  1774,  p.  273. 

2  See  W.  Jochelson,  The  Yukaghir,  Part  II,  Religion  and  Myths,  p.  222. 

3  H.  C.  Yarrow,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Mortuary  Customs  among  the  North  American  Indians, 
Washington,  1880;  T.  Preuss,  Begrabnissarten  der  Amerikaner  und  Nordost  Asiaten ,  Konigsberg,  1894. 

41 


42 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


but  as  the  same  loving-  beings  as  when  they  were  alive.  Among  most  primitive 
peoples,  as  the  Siberian  natives  and  the  Eskimo,  kindred  to  the  Aleut  tribes,  the 
departed  inspires  fear  to  such  an  extent  that  the  dwelling  in  which  a  death  occurred 
is  very  often  abandoned.  Among  the  Siberian  natives  we  found  an  analogy  only 
among  the  Yukaghir;  they,  too,  have  no  fear  of  departed  relatives.4  As  will  be  seen 
in  the  section  dealing  with  religion,  the  Aleut  dead  may  do  harm  to  enemies  or  to 
alien  hunters  after  helping  them  in  the  chase,  but  they  always  preserve  a  benevolent 
attitude  toward  relatives. 

Judging,  however,  from  the  excavation  of  burial-places,  no  uniform  method 
of  disposing  of  the  dead  prevailed.  The  present  Aleut  tell  how  their  ancestors  kept 
the  dead,  attired  in  their  best  clothing,  in  their  living-rooms,  before  the  final  dis¬ 
posal.  Mothers  kept  dead  infants  for  months,  and  very  often  for  a  whole  year, 
•carrying  them  around  as  when  alive  or  rocking  them  in  cradles.  In  Aleut  folk-lore 
are  many  pathetic  tales  of  women  who  did  not  part  with  their  dead  husbands  or 
lovers  for  a  long  time.  One  tale  is  that  of  a  young  woman  who  killed  her  husband, 
stealing  upon  him  at  the  side  of  her  rival,  but  afterwards  she  insisted  on  her  right 
to  remain  with  the  corpse,  preferring  it  to  her  rival.  Her  rival  did  not  yield,  and 
both  women  remained  with  the  dead,  spending  several  days  without  food  or  drink 
at  the  side  of  the  corpse. 

Another  tradition  relates  the  tale  of  an  Aleut  who  killed  his  nephew,  the  son 
of  his  sister,5  being  suspicious  of  the  conduct  of  his  wife  and  nephew.  The  aunt 
carried  the  body  of  her  nephew-lover  to  the  top  of  a  rock,  where  she  spent  several 
days  with  it,  speaking  to  it  and  caressing  it  as  if  it  were  alive.  Finally,  heart-broken 
and  weeping,  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea  with  the  corpse. 

Under  such  circumstances  it  is  scarcely  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  Aleut 
achieved  the  art  of  mummifying  the  bodies  of  their  dead,  which  made  possible  their 
preservation  and  postponed  the  time  for  final  disposal.  It  may  be  contended  that 
mummification  could  not  succeed  in  the  cold  and  wet  climate  of  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
but  such  is  not  the  case.  The  Aleut  used  no  drugs  for  embalming,  but  proceeded  as 
follows :  An  incision  was  made  in  the  perinaeum  and  the  intestines  removed  through 
the  pelvis,  or  an  incision  was  made  over  the  stomach  for  that  purpose.  The  intes¬ 
tines  were  carefully  cleaned,  all  fatty  substances  removed,  and  then  stuffed  with 
dry  scented  grasses.  Then  the  corpse  was  arrayed  in  its  best  clothing,  over  which  a 
kamleika  (water-proof  shirt  made. of  the  guts  of  sea  mammals)  was  drawn.  Then 
it  was  arranged  in  a  squatting  position  with  knees  drawn  up  to  the  chin.  Wrapped 
in  closely  plaited  grass-mats  and  seal  or  sea-lion  skins  taken  from  the  cover  of  the 
dead  man’s  boat,  the  corpse  was  lashed  into  a  compact  bundle  with  thongs  or  sea¬ 
weed  ropes.  Then  the  whole  package  was  again  wrapped  in  a  net  made  of  sea-lion 
sinews. 

The  arrangement  of  a  corpse  in  a  squatting  position  has  a  wide  distribution 
throughout  the  world,  not  excluding  Europe.  It  was  prevalent  in  the  palaeolithic 


4  W.  Jochelson,  The  Yukaghir,  Part  II,  Religion  and  Myths,  pp.  163-165. 

5  According  to  the  old  Aleut  custom,  a  woman’s  son  was  reared  by  her  brother. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  11 


1.  Skeleton  found  in  the  excavation  of  the  Nanikax  site,  Attu  Island,  at  depth  of  1.5  meters. 

2.  Skeleton  from  the  Aglagax  site,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.9  meters. 

3.  Skeleton  from  the  Ukix  site,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.8  meters. 

4.  Skeleton  from  the  Ugludax  Site,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.1  meters. 


Human  Remains  in  Kitchen  Middens. 


43 


period  and  the  custom  is  still  followed  in  some  parts  of  Africa  (among  the  Hotten¬ 
tot  and  Bantu  tribes),  Asia  (Indo-China  and  Japan),  America  (among  some  of  the 
Eskimo  and  some  Indian  tribes  like  the  Comanche),  and  in  Australia.  Only  in 
Europe  has  this  custom  completely  disappeared. 

Various  interpretations  of  this  method  of  disposal  of  the  dead  have  been 
offered.  For  example,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  squatting  position  of  the  dead 
was  to  imitate  the  position  of  a  child  when  in  the  mother’s  womb,  i.  e.,  ( i )  that  the 
posture  of  man  when  leaving  this  world  may  correspond  to  that  before  his  birth; 
(2)  that  the  doubling  up  of  the  body  was  for  economy  of  space;  and  (3)  to  give  the 
dead  a  crooked  position  to  prevent  their  returning  and  harming  the  living. 

None  of  these  interpretations  can  be  applied  to  the  Aleut  method  of  disposal 
of  the  dead.  The  first  explanation  came  from  missionary-travelers  who  applied  to 
this  custom  the  Christian  conception  of  death.  It  is  quite  doubtful  whether  any  tribe 
following  this  practice  attached  this  or  a  similar  explanation  to  the  custom.  The 
second  explanation  might  be  applicable  where  urn  burial  was  practised,  as  in  India, 
Hindustan,  and  South  Carolina.  The  third  explanation,  fear  of  the  dead,  undoubt¬ 
edly  presents  a  real  cause,  which  might,  however,  refer  not  to  the  doubling  up  of 
the  corpse,  but  to  binding  it  or  putting  it  into  an  urn.  Both  these  methods  may  have 
been  to  hamper  its  movement.  The  Aleut  lashed  the  body  with  thongs  only  to  keep 
the  bent  bones  together,  while  the  squatting  position  corresponds  to  the  posture  of 
which  the  living  Aleut  are  so  fond. 

Even  now,  when  the  Aleut  are  familiar  with  the  use  of  chairs  and  stools,  many 
of  them,  particularly  the  women,  perform  their  household  tasks  squatting  on  the 
floor.  This  is  also  the  usual  posture  when  at  leisure  or  when  playing  chess,  a  game 
they  adopted  from  the  Russians  and  of  which  they  are  very  fond.  The  usual  posi¬ 
tion  is  to  sit  on  the  heels,  clasp  the  hands  around  the  knees,  or  rest  the  chin  on  them. 
In  this  position  the  Aleut  rests  his  whole  foot  on  the  ground.  The  author  was  unable 
to  attain  such  a  position  and  always  fell  on  his  back  when  attempting  to  do  so.  To 
sit  on  the  heels  as  do  the  Aleut  one  must  have  well  developed  leg-muscles  capable  of 
keeping  the  trunk  in  equilibrium ;  besides  the  Aleut  curve  their  backs  and  drop  their 
heads  forward  to  assist  in  balancing  themselves.  Apparently  the  use  of  this  posture 
by  many  generations  of  Aleut  has  made  them  adept  at  assuming  it.  Not  only  are 
they  not  fatigued  thereby,  but  they  seem  to  find  it  restful  after  their  work.  So  the 
dead  are  arranged  likewise.  Text-figure  5a  shows  an  old  Aleut  woman  sitting  on  her 
heels,  resting  after  her  work;  in  figure  5B  is  a  young  Aleut  woman  weaving  a  sus¬ 
pended  grass  basket. 

According  to  one  tradition  recorded  in  a  text,  the  ancient  Aleut,  when  pre¬ 
vented  from  hunting  at  sea  by  continuous  gales,  used  to  squat  in  their  huts,  cover 
themselves  with  grass,  and  wait  until  the  storm  subsided  or  they  died  of  starvation. 

Doctor  Dali  states  that  during  the  historic  period,  at  the  time  of  the  advent  of 
the  Russians,  burials  were  found  with  bodies  stretched  out  on  their  backs  at  full 
length ; 6  however,  we  found  no  bodies  lying  thus.  Only  one  unflexed  skeleton  was 

6  W.  H.  Dali,  On  the  Remains  of  Later  Prehistoric  Man,  etc.  (Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge, 
Washington,  1878),  5. 


44 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


found,  but  this  lay,  not  on  its  back,  but  on  its  side,  and  judging  from  its  length  and 
the  measurements  of  the  skull,  the  skeleton  may  be  that  of  a  Russian  left  where  he 
had  been  killed  (plate  14,  fig.  4). 

An  old  Aleut  informed  us  that  not  all  Aleut  were  embalmed,  this  being  the 
privilege  of  noted  hunters,  especially  whale-hunters.  The  Atka  Aleut  regarded  them 
as  bewitched  after  death  and  called  them  asxi'nan,  which  properly  means  “  the 
departed  ones.”  The  asxi'nan  were  hung  up  in  caves  in  troughs  resembling  large 
cradles  which  were  attached  to  a  cross-beam  resting  on  two  posts.  Colored  posts 
were  placed  in  front  of  the  entrance,  which  was  also  painted  in  different  colors.  The 
asxi'nan,  according  to  Aleut  belief,  were  busy  throughout  the  night;  they  rose, 
hunted,  prepared  food  for  themselves,  held  feasts  and  festivals,  and  in  the  morning 
resumed  their  squatting  position. 


a  b 


Fig.  5. — A,  Old  Aleut  woman  resting ;  B,  young  Aleut  woman  weaving  a  basket. 

Drawn  from  author’s  photographs. 


Corpses  of  honored  people  and  of  the  families  of  chiefs  were  also  mummified. 
Doctor  Dali  has  also  described  the  Aleut  mummies  found  in  caves,  and  we  were 
told  of  other  caves  containing  mummies,  but  were  unable  to  examine  them.  He  has 
also  described  the  outer  appearance  of  the  mummies  obtained  by  Captain  Henning, 
of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  on  the  islands  of  the  Four  Craters  in  1874. 
Two  of  these  were  presented  to  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the 
remainder  were  forwarded  as  a  gift  to  the  U.  S.  National  Museum.  Unfortunately, 
Captain  Henning  did  not  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  position  of  the  mummies, 
nor  of  the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  obtained.  According  to  informa¬ 
tion  obtained  from  some  intelligent  natives,  Doctor  Dali  placed  the  age  of  the 
mummies  as  shortly  before  the  period  of  the  advent  of  the  Russians.  Doctor  Dali 
relates  a  tradition  concerning  these  remains,  a  variant  of  which  was  recorded  by  the 
author  as  follows : 


Human  Remains  in  Kitchen  Middens. 


45 


On  the  island  of  Ka'gam-Tlan  7  there  lived  an  old  chief.  He  was  the  best  war¬ 
rior  and  hunter  among  all  the  Aleut  and  took  constant  care  of  his  people.  Therefore 
he  was  respected  and  honored  far  outside  his  island.  He  was  a  widower  and  had 
two  children,  a  son  and  a  daughter,  whom  he  loved  very  much.  At  the  request  of 
his  son,  the  old  man  made  a  small  skin  boat  (■ i'qyax ')  for  him.  When  it  was  ready 
the  boy  was  allowed  to  go  out  in  it  on  condition  that  he  did  not  go  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  bay.  However,  the  boy  saw  some  ducks,  chased  them,  and,  carried  away  by 
his  interest  in  the  hunt,  left  the  bay,  and  his  father  lost  sight  of  him.  Just  at  this 
time,  the  son-in-law  of  the  old  man,  a  young  Aleut  from  Umnak  Island,  appeared 
from  the  sea.  He  was  on  his  way  to  visit  his  pregnant  wife’,  who,  according  to  Aleut 
custom,  must  remain  with  her  father  until  after  the  birth  of  the  child.  The  boy  did 
not  see  his  brother-in-law,  as  his  back  was  toward  him.  The  young  Aleut  saw  with 
delight  how  skilfully  and  bravely  the  boy  followed  the  chase.  He  resolved  to  frighten 
him  and  threw  a  dart,  aiming  above  the  boy’s  head,  but  unfortunately  he  hit  him 
in  the  back.  The  boat  capsized  and  the  boy  drowned.  The  brother-in-law,  frightened 
by  the  incident,  carried  the  skin  boat  and  the  boy’s  body  to  the  shore,  left  it  among 
the  weeds  and  returned  to  Umnak,  giving  up  the  visit  to  his  wife.  The  chief  ( tn'kux ') 
hunted  for  his  boy  all  night  and  the  next  morning  found  him  dead  among  the  algae 
close  to  the  shore.  He  embalmed  the  body  and  arranged  an  elaborate  funeral.  While 
the  corpse  was  being  carried  to  the  family  cave,  the  chief’s  daughter  stumbled  and 
fell  down  the  rock  to  her  death,  giving  premature  birth  to  a  dead  child.  The  boy’s 
funeral  was  halted  and  the  chief  prepared  the  bodies  of  his  daughter  and  the  child 
and  carried  them  to  the  cave.  Grieving  over  his  loss,  the  chief  did  not  survive  his 
children  long,  and  soon  the  people  added  his  body  to  those  in  the  cave. 

Such,  in  brief,  is  the  tale  of  the  origin  of  the  mummified  corpses  found  in  a 
cave  on  the  island  of  Ka'gam-Tlan.  But  Doctor  Dali,  who  examined  the  mummies 
found  by  Captain  Henning,  states  that,  judging  from  their  age,  they  do  not  cor¬ 
respond  to  those  referred  to  in  the  tradition.  On  the  other  hand,  we  were  told  by 
the  Umnak  Aleut  that  the  mummified  corpses  of  the  members  of  the  family  of  the 
late  chief  of  Ka'gam-Tlan  Island  are  still  untouched  in  one  of  the  caves  on  the 
island. 

Two  types  of  caves  were  used  as  burial-places:  one  with  deep  grotto-like 
passages  with  a  large  opening,  the  other  in  the  form  of  small  hollows  in  the  rock. 
Neither  type  of  cave  is  due  to  solution  and  erosion  processes;  but  rather  they  are  a 
part  of  the  original  structure  of  the  solid  volcanic  rock  or  lava  tunnels  similar  to 
those  known  in  Hawaii  and  Oregon.  The  caves  are  dry  and  no  surface  water  pene¬ 
trates  them. 

Mummified  corpses  of  distinguished  people  were  hung  up  chiefly  in  the  bottom 
of  the  grotto-like  caves,  while  in  the  small  caves,  which  evidently  were  regarded  as 
village  cemeteries,  all  the  less  distinguished  dead  were  placed.  According  to 
Weniaminoff,  common  people  and  slaves  were  buried  in  such  small  caves,  while  chiefs 
and  other  eminent  people  were  hung  up  in  high,  square,  wooden  boxes  with  slanting 


7  Doctor  Dali  erroneously  spells  this  name  Kagamil. 


46 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


roofs,  or  were  buried  in  separate  earth  lodges.  However,  it  should  be  stated  that 
we  nowhere  found  traces  of  burials  above  the  ground  in  boxes,  as  related  by 
Weniaminoff,  and  no  other  Aleut  knew  of  such  graves.  Such  burials  were  called 
qu'mnax '  by  Weniaminoff,  but  the  Aleut  use  this  designation  for  any  place  for  the 
disposal  of  .a  body,  whether  it  be  a  cave,  a  special  burial  hut,  or  a  compartment  for 
the  dead  in  an  occupied  underground  dwelling. 

It  should  be  added  that  in  the  caves  examined  on  Attu,  as,  for  instance,  the 
large  cave  on  Goltzef  Bay  (plate  7,  fig.  6),  within  15  miles  of  the  present  winter 
settlement,  or  the  two  caves  on  the  little  island  Kixsin,  opposite  the  settlement  on 
Chichagof  Bay,  no  traces  of  burials  were  found.  The  Kixsin  caves  were  used  by 
the  Attu  Aleut  for  storing  grasses  for  weaving.  It  is  possible  that  the  Attu  people 
did  not  use  caves  as  burial-places.  The  large  cave  on  Goltzef  Bay  is  grotto-shaped 
and  is  divided  into  two  passages.  A  narrow  gorge,  into  which  the  sun  does  not  pene¬ 
trate,  leads  to  the  wide  cave-entrance  near  which  stalagmite-like  pillars  of  ice  still 
stood  in  spite  of  the  lateness  of  the  season  (June  20).  These  ice-pillars  were  formed 
from  the  melting  of  the  snow  on  the  rock  over  the  cave.  It  was  cold,  and  in  some 
places  inside  the  cave  water  dripped  through  crevices  in  the  basaltic  rock.  Few 
vestiges  of  human  activities  were  found.  Among  the  splinters  of  rock  fallen  from 
the  vault  of  the  cave  and  in  the  earth  carried  into  the  cave  by  the  winds,  were  found 
some  bones  of  fishes,  sea  mammals,  and  foxes.  At  the  time  of  our  examination, 
Aleut  hunters  often  stayed  there  for  the  night  when  hunting  foxes  and  seals  when 
they  did  not  wish  to  return  home  in  the  dark.  During  stormy  weather  the  hunters 
often  spent  many  days  in  the  cave. 

There  are  two  caves  on  the  small  island  in  Chichagof  Bay,  within  a  mile 
of  the  present  winter  village,  and  opposite  the  ancient  village  site,  Sin.  One  of 
the  caves  is  a  large  grotto  (plate  7,  fig.  4),  similar  to  the  cave  on  Goltzef  Bay,  but 
not  so  deep.  Besides  a  quantity  of  shells  of  mollusks  and  seal-bones,  no  other  refuse 
or  traces  of  burials  were  found.  Dry,  tumbled  grass,  a  hunter’s  sleeping-place,  was 
found  in  the  bottom  of  the  cave.  The  second  cave  was  smaller  in  size,  not  deep,  but 
dry.  In  the  summer  the  Aleut  women  preserve  their  supply  of  grasses  which,  during 
the  winter,  they  make  into  mats  and  baskets. 

Small  cave  cemeteries  of  the  second  type,  sack-shaped  hollows  in  the  rock,  were 
found  on  Atka  and  Amaknax.  Two  such  caves  were  discovered  on  Atka,  near  the 
Atxalax  village  site  (plate  8).  Evidently  both  caves  had  served  as  burial-places  for 
the  inhabitants  of  the  village.  They  were  located  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  por- 
phyritic  rock  of  a  promontory  separated  from  the  abrupt  shore  of  Atka  by  a  narrow 
neck  of  land,  on  which  a  village  site  ( A )  was  located.  The  cave  ( B )  was  evidently 
a  one-family  burial-place.  From  this  cave  we  secured  four  uninjured  skulls,  two 
broken,  and  some  well-preserved  bones  (plate  8,  fig.  1).  Of  much  greater  impor¬ 
tance  was  the  second  cave  (C),  located  about  30  paces  from  the  former  and  a  little 
higher  up  on  the  rock.  Three  days  were  occupied  in  excavating  the  cave,  August  15 
and  17  and  September  4,  1909.  The  interruptions  were  due  to  the  heavy  rains  and 
stormy  weather,  making  it  unsafe  to  go  from  the  village  to  the  promontory  at 
Atxalax  in  skin  boats. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  12 


Skeleton  from  Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.2  meters.  2.  Skeleton  from  Ugludax,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.1  meters 


Human  Remains  in  Kitchen  Middens. 


47 


On  first  examination,  the  cave  (C)  presented  the  appearance  of  a  small  rocky 
vault,  under  which  three  skulls,  whitened  by  weathering,  were  observed.  The  vault 
over  the  skulls  was  only  a  foot  high.  With  the  removal  of  stones  which  had  fallen 
from  the  vault  and  wind-borne  earth,  additional  skulls  were  disclosed.  The  cave  as 
it  appeared  early  in  the  excavations  is  shown  in  plate  8,  figure  2.  With  the  removal 
of  stones  and  other  debris  a  threshold  of  whale-bones  came  to  light.  This  had  evi¬ 
dently  been  intended  to  wall  up  the  cave.  Intermingled  with  the  stones  and  earth 
was  much  decayed  skeletal  material,  and  about  2  feet  below  the  first  skulls  found 
more  skulls  were  uncovered.  Judging  from  the  number  of  skulls,  22  bodies  had  been 
buried  in  the  cave.  There  may  possibly  have  been  more  bodies,  since  some  of  the 
skulls  may  have  been  totally  destroyed;  of  those  found  only  10  were  intact.  All  the 
others  were  broken  to  some  degree  by  stones  dropping  from  the  vault  or  had  decayed 
as  a  result  of  weathering,  so  they  were  abandoned. 

Evidently,  the  cave  had  been  the  burial-place  for  the  Atxalax  village  over  a 
long  period  of  time,  though  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  specific  statement  in  years  or  to 
refer  the  skulls  to  a  particular  period.  From  the  position  of  the  skeletal  remains,  no 
conclusion  could  be  drawn  as  to  the  original  position  of  the  bodies.  The  bottom  of 
the  cave  was  2  meters  square.  All  the  bodies  could  scarcely  have  been  placed  in  the 
usual  squatting  position  in  one  layer.  It  must,  therefore,  be  assumed  that  the  squat¬ 
ting  bodies  were  in  2  layers  at  least  or  were  laid  out  on  their  sides  like  those  on 
Umnak  Island  (plate  14,  fig.  2). 

That  this  cave  was  an  ancient  one  may  be  deduced  from  the  fact  that  all  the 
perishable  body-wrappings,  such  as  water-proof  coats,  fur  clothing,  grass  mats, 
skins  of  sea  mammals,  masks  and  other  wooden  objects,  and  implements  had  com¬ 
pletely  decayed,  and  most  of  the  human  bones  had  disintegrated.  Of  objects  usually 
deposited  with  the  dead,  only  stone  implements  and  a  few  of  bone  were  found  unin¬ 
jured.  Thus,  among  the  skeletal  remains  were  found  stone  labrets,  arrow  and  har¬ 
poon  points,  and  those  parts  of  throwing  implements  that  were  of  bone.  The  total 
depth  of  the  debris  was  1.5  meters. 

Beneath  the  skulls  and  other  bones  was  a  layer  containing  kitchen  refuse  mixed 
with  earth  and  fragments  of  rock.  The  cave  was  excavated  to  the  original  rock 
bottom ;  the  total  depth  of  the  excavations  was  2.9  meters. 

A  vertical  section  of  the  cave  is  shown  in  figure  6.  A,  is  the  skeletal  layer ;  the 
dotted  line  passes  through  the  rock  fragments  and  the  bone  threshold  which  closed 
the  entrance  to  the  cave.  In  B  are  shown  the  fallen  rocks  covered  with  grass¬ 
growing  earth ;  C  is  the  kitchen-refuse  layer  beneath  the  bone  layer ;  D  is  a  layer  of 
shingle  or  water-worn  stones. 

The  stratum  of  kitchen  refuse  was  of  the  same  character  throughout.  The 
remains  generally  predominating  were  shells  of  mollusks  (Mytilus  edulis,  Acmcea 
patina,  Litorina  sitchana,  and  Mactra  ponderosa).  Shells  of  echini  were  much  less 
in  evidence  than  those  of  mollusks.  Of  fish,  there  were  the  bones  of  cod  and  halibut 
and  of  sea  mammals  those  of  sea-lions,  seals,  and  sea-otters.  The  bird-bones  were 
those  of  uriles,  albatross,  and  puffins.  In  the  layer  containing  the  skeletal  remains 
were  found  several  raven  beaks  which  had  evidently  served  as  amulets.  In  the 


48 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


kitchen  refuse  beneath  the  skeletal  remains  were  found  the  same  kind  of  stone  and 
bone  weapons  and  implements  as  in  the  skeletal  layer,  which  is  evidence  that  Aleut 
culture  did  not  change,  at  least  in  the  course  of  the  accumulation  of  these  2  layers 
of  debris.  In  the  opinion  of  Doctor  Dali  the  occurrence  of  kitchen  refuse  beneath 
skeletal  remains  indicated  that  at  certain  periods  caves  had  not  served  as  burial- 
places,  but  as  dwellings.  This  conclusion  does  not  appeal  to  the  author,  since  all  the 
remains  found  during  excavation  tend  to  support  the  supposition  that  the  Aleut 
came  to  the  islands  with  a  definitely  developed  culture  and  with  a  knowledge  of 
building  of  houses  suitable  for  protection  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  Aleutian 
climate.  It  is  true  that  remains  of  food  have  been  found  in  the  caves,  but  these  may 
show  that  it  had  been  used  as  a  temporary  shelter  and  not  as  a  permanent  dwelling. 
The  presence  of  stone  lamps  in  the  cave  does  not  necessarily  prove  that  it  had  been 
used  as  a  dwelling,  since  lamps  were  used  not  only  for  light,  but  for  warmth  as  well. 
Hunters  always  carried  stone  lamps  in  their  skin  boats  and  when 
ashore  used  them  to  warm  themselves.  Possibly  they  kept  special 
lamps  in  caves  for  this  purpose. 

A  third  burial  cave  was  discovered  on  Amaknax, 
near  the  ancient  village  site  Tanaxtaxax.  On  t! 
side  of  the  lagoon  and  opposite  the  village  site  on 
slope  of  Amaknax  ridge,  10  feet  above  the  level  of 
lake,  was  a  small  cave  so  filled  with  stones  and 
earth  overgrown  with  grass  that  from  a  distance 
it  was  scarcely  visible.  After  close  examination 
we  found  a  narrow  slit  between  the  rocky  vault 
of  the  cave  and  the  floor,  where  could  be  • 

seen  a  broken  skull  and  fragments  of  d 
other  bones.  We  cleared  the  cave  until 
its  original  surface  was  reached.  At  the  Fig-  6— Vertical  section  of  burial  cave,  C,  Atka  Island. 

front  of  the  cave  a  layer,  1.2  meters  thick,  was  removed  and  this  gradually  thinned 
down  to  a  depth  of  0.7  meter  at  the  cave  wall.  Whale-bones  which  had  served  as  a 
threshold  to  the  cave  were  discovered  outside  the  vault  about  0.5  meter  away.  The 
bones  were  supported  by  large  stones.  The  location  of  the  threshold  makes  it  prob¬ 
able  that  the  cave  vault  had  formerly  protruded  farther  and  that  the  front  of  the 
cave  had  collapsed.  Among  the  fragments  of  rock  and  earth  taken  from  under  the 
vault  were  the  remains  of  16  skeletons,  judging  from  the  number  of  skulls.  More 
than  half  of  the  bones  were  so  decayed  that  they  crumbled  to  dust  when  handled. 
Only  9  skulls  sufficiently  complete  for  measuring  were  obtained.  When  all  the  debris 
had  been  removed  it  appeared  that  the  vault  protruded  0.5  meter;  thus,  the  former 
width  of  the  cave  was  1  meter.  Its  height  was  1  meter  and  its  length  1.5  meters. 
This  small  cave  had  contained  at  least  16  bodies.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  they 
had  been  in  a  sitting  position  or  laid  on  their  sides  one  over  the  other.  Evidently 
this  cave  cemetery  was  very  ancient;  not  only  were  there  no  vestiges  of  wooden 
objects  and  masks,  but  no  remnants  of  bone  objects  were  found.  Of  objects  of  stone 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  13 


1.  Skeleton  from  Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.2  meters. 

2.  Skeleton  from  Ugludax,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.2  meters. 

3.  Skeleton  of  a  child  from  Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.5  meters. 

4.  Skeleton  from  Natxakax,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.7  meters. 


Human  Remains  in  Kitchen  Middens. 


49 


we  found  two  woman’s  knives,  a  man’s  crooked  knife,  a  fragment  of  a  stone  lance- 
head,  and  two  whetstones.  The  only  kitchen  refuse  found  was  a  small  quantity  of 
mollusk  shells. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Doctor  Dali,  who  made  excavations  on  the  Tanax- 
taxax  site,  had  evidently  not  noticed  this  cave  from  the  other  side  of  the  lagoon; 
otherwise  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  he  would  have  left  it  untouched.  We  reproduce 
here  the  photograph  of  the  cave  examined  by  Doctor  Dali  (plate  9,  fig.  3)  more  than 
45  years  prior  to  our  expedition.  Plate  9,  figure  1,  shows  the  isolated  rock  at  the  end 
of  the  promontory  where  the  cave  is  located,  and  the  middle  neck  of  land  on  which 
were  situated  the  two  sites,  Amaknax  and  Xatacxan,  which  were  excavated.  The 
burial  cave  was  situated  near  the  latter  site.  In  the  bird’s-eye  view  in  plate'  9, 
figure  2,  may  be  seen  the  third  or  southern  neck  of  land  on  Amaknax  Island,  which 
we  were  unable  to  examine.  In  the  strait  between  the  last  neck  of  land  and  Unalaska 
is  a  small  island  called  Expedition  Island,  on  which  Weniaminoff  has  planted  some 
fir  trees  brought  from  Sitka. 

In  addition  to  the  large  grotto-like  caves  in  which  the  Aleut  suspended  their 
mummified  dead  and  the  smaller  caves  which  served  as  village  cemeteries,  the  Aleut 
used  compartments  in  their  underground  dwellings  or  special  lodges  for  the  disposal 
of  their  dead.  For  the  latter  2  methods  the  bodies  were  prepared  as  for  cave  burial. 
As  will  appear  later,  skeletons  were  found  during  the  excavation  of  the  usual  type 
of  underground  dwelling  as  well  as  in  special  burial  pits.  In  some  underground 
dwellings  were  uncovered  lateral  burial  compartments  which  had  been  walled  up 
by  stones  and  earth  and  covered  with  grass  mats  while  the  underground  house  con¬ 
tinued  to  be  occupied.  In  a  large  dwelling  one  side  often  contained  compartments 
for  the  dead,  while  the  other  was  for  the  accommodation  of  children  or  for  storage. 
These  latter  partitioned  spaces  could  also  be  used  for  burials  of  the  members  of  the 
family  and  were  then  walled  up. 

The  greater  number  of  skeletons  was  discovered  through  the  excavation  of  the 
large  pits,  remnants  of  underground  dwellings,  where  they  were  usually  located  at 
one  side  only. 

Special  burial  pits  were  called  ula'kax '  from  u'lax\  house  or  dwelling,  and  ka, 
element  of  the  potential  mood,  i.  e.,  a  possible  house.  Such  burial  huts,  when  they 
collapsed,  left  indications  of  their  former  presence  in  the  form  of  almost  circular 
pits  1  to  2  meters  in  diameter.  There  were  burial  pits  for  one,  two,  or  three  indi¬ 
viduals,  according  to  the  number  that  had  died  at  the  same  time.  A  burial  pit  for 
one  person  was  designated  as  a  “  solitary  burial  hut  ”  by  the  Aleut.  In  these  pits  the 
skeletons  were  found  either  in  a  sitting  posture  or  on  their  sides.  In  some  places, 
as  on  Hog  Island,  small  burial  pits  were  located  in  rows  along  one  side  of  the  large 
oblong  underground  dwelling. 

As  has  been  stated  before,  some  of  the  skeletons  were  found  in  a  sitting  posi¬ 
tion,  with  knees  drawn  up  to  the  chin,  while  others  were  found  lying  on  their  sides. 
In  plate  3  may  be  seen  the  position  of  a  skeleton  as  found  upon  excavation. 
Figure  1  is  a  skeleton  found  in  Pit  3  of  the  Ukix  village  site  on  Umnak  Island.  The 


so 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


skeleton  lay  on  its  left  side  on  the  northwestern  side  of  the  pit,  at  a  depth  of  3.5  feet. 
At  a  distance  of  3.5  feet  from  the  first,  another  skeleton  lay  on  its  right  side,  with 
the  cranium  missing,  though  the  lower  jaw  was  found.  This  may  be  some  indica¬ 
tion  of  the  former  position  of  the  skeletons ;  apparently,  the  bodies  had  been  placed 
as  if  sitting,  and  later  they  had  fallen  over.  One  evidence  of  this  may  be  seen  in 
the  curvature  of  the  vertebral  columns,  something  which  could  not  have  occurred 
had  the  bent  bodies  originally  been  laid  on  their  sides.  The  skeleton  with  the  skull 
had  the  right  arm  drawn  up  to  form  a  right  angle,  while  the  left  arm  was  stretched 
out  at  full  length,  both  arms  having  evidently  fallen  into  this  position  when  the 
skeleton  fell  over.  The  skull  appeared  turned  by  its  neck  to  front. 

In  the  model  of  an  excavated  section  of  the  ruin  of  an  underground  dwelling 
now  in  the  Rumiantzev  Museum  in  Moscow  (plate  10)  the  skeleton  was  arranged 
to  appear  as  if  having  fallen  from  a  sitting  position. 

Plate  11,  figure  1,  shows  the  best-preserved  skeleton  of  9  found  on  the  Nanikax 
village  site  on  Attu,  in  a  small  lateral  pit  separated  from  Pit  4  by  a  small  elevation. 
It  is  possible  that  this  was  a  burial  pit  for  the  inhabitants  of  Pit  4.  The  skeleton 
was  found  on  its  left  side  at  a  depth  of  1.5  meters,  intermingled  with  kitchen  refuse. 
At  the  same  depth  were  found  skeletons  in  much  better  condition :  in  the  middle  of 
the  pit  were  4  with  skulls  shattered  from  the  weight  of  the  fallen  whale-bones  which 
had  served  as  ceiling  rafters. 

A  skeleton  was  found  on  the  Aglagax  village  site  (plate  11,  fig.  2)  on  Umnak 
Island,  at  a  depth  of  1.9  meters  while  excavating  Pit  2.  It  lay  bent  over  on  its  right 
side.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  this  was  its  original  position  or  whether 
it  had  fallen  thus.  The  curved  position  of  the  vertebral  column  may  support  the 
second  supposition.  The  pit  was  one  of  the  largest  on  the  site  and  the  body  had 
evidently  been  buried  in  one  of  the  compartments  of  the  dwelling.  About  2  feet 
below  the  skeleton  were  found  large  whale-bones  which  had  evidently  served  as  the 
framework  for  an  underground  dwelling  antedating  the  one  in  which  the  skeleton 
was  found. 

Not  far  from  Pit  2  we  excavated  an  ula'kax '  (burial  pit).  At  a  depth  of  1.3 
meters  were  found  the  much  decayed  skeleton  of  a  woman  and  a  child.  No  refuse 
was  found  with  the  bones,  merely  earth  black  with  decayed  organic  matter. 

In  plate  11,  figure  3  (also  plate  5,  fig.  2),  may  be  seen  the  skeleton  found  in  Pit  1 
on  the  Ukix  site  on  Umnak  Island  at  a  depth  of  1.8  meters.  Lying  on  the  skeleton 
were  war  throwing-lances  (plate  23,  figs.  2  to  6  and  8),  indicating  the  burial  of  a  war¬ 
rior.  The  skeleton  lay  on  its  right  side,  with  the  left  arm  bent  at  right  angles  and  the 
right  at  a  sharp  angle.  The  position  of  the  arm  may  testify  as  to  the  original  sitting 
position  of  the  body;  but  judging  by  the  normal  curve  of  the  spine,  by  the  position 
of  the  skull  on  its  right  side,  and  by  the  undisturbed  position  of  the  neck  vertebrae, 
it  seems  more  probable  that  the  bent  corpse  was  laid  out  on  its  side.  The  skeleton 
lay  with  head  to  the  southeast  and  feet  to  the  northwest;  it  was  surrounded  by 
kitchen  refuse  consisting  of  shells  of  echini  and  mollusca,  and  fish-bones.  The  body 
had  evidently  been  laid,  as  was  true  in  most  cases,  on  the  kitchen  remains  left  by 


Human  Remains  in  Kitchen  Middens. 


Si 


former  generations,  and  covered  by  grass  mats,  which  have  since  decayed.  The 
presence  of  kitchen  remains  above  the  'skeleton  may  be  explained  by  their  falling 
when  the  ceiling  of  the  lodge  collapsed. 

The  skeleton  in  plate  n,  figure  4,  was  found  together  with  another  in  Pit  1 
of  the  Ugludax  site  on  Umnak  Island,  at  a  depth  of  1.1  meters,  in  the  midst  of 
kitchen  remains  (plate  5,  fig.  3).  Both  skeletons  lay  at  the  northwestern  side  of  the 
pit,  the  first  on  its  right  side  and  the  second  on  its  back;  but  judging  from  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  bones,  the  bodies  had  originally  been  in  a  sitting  position. 

Of  the  two  skeletons  shown  on  plate  12,  figure  1,  has  already  been  shown  in 
plate  3,  figure  1,  and  has  been  described  above.  The  skeleton  in  figure  2  has  been 
described  along  with  the  skeleton  shown  in  plate  11,  figure  4. 

In  plate  13  the  following  skeletons  are  illustrated:  Figure  1  was  found  in  the 
burial  Pit  5,  on  the  Ukix  village  site  on  Umnak  Island,  at  a  depth  of  1.2  meters, 
intermingled  with  refuse.  The  bones  had  partly  decayed;  the  skeleton  lay  on  its 
back,  with  the  skull  turned  to  the  right.  The  left  arm  was  bent  at  right  angles  and 
the  right  stretched  out  at  full  length.  The  original  position  of  the  body  had  evidently 
been  a  sitting  posture.  In  the  photograph  may  be  seen  the  bones  of  the  foot  and  the 
left  hand.  Only  the  skull  and  the  lower  jaw  were  worth  preserving  for  our  collec¬ 
tion,  since  the  rest  of  the  bones  were  much  decayed. 

The  skeleton  shown  in  plate  13,  figure  2,  was  found  at  a  depth  of  1.2  meters  in 
Pit  3  (plate  5,  fig.  1)  of  the  Ugludax  site  on  Umnak  Island.  The  skeleton  lay  on 
its  right  side,  but  from  the  distorted  position  of  the  spine  and  the  skull,  we  decided 
that  it  had  been  in  a  sitting  position.  The  bones  of  one  foot  and  one  hand  were 
missing. 

The  skeleton  of  a  child  may  be  seen  in  plate  13,  figure  3.  It  was  found  in  Pit  2 
of  the  Ukix  village  site  on  Umnak  Island,  at  a  depth  of  1.5  meters.  Beneath  the 
upper  layer  of  dark  earth  was  found  a  layer  of  clay  containing  pieces  of  rotted 
wood.  Evidently  these  were  the  remains  of  wooden  rods  which  had  formed  the 
frame  for  the  ceiling  of  the  burial  lodge.  The  skeleton  lay  on  its  left  side  on  some 
rotted  wooden  planks  which  had  evidently  served  as  the  floor  of  the  earth  lodge. 
Both  arms  were  outstretched;  the  tibia  and  fibula  of  the  left  leg  lay  apart. 

In  burial-hut  2  on  the  Nutxakax  village  site  on  Umnak  Island  was  found  the 
skeleton  shown  in  plate  13,  figure  4.  It  was  uncovered  at  a  depth  of  1.7  meters,  and 
had  preserved  its  sitting  position.  The  skeleton  was  surrounded  by  kitchen  remains : 
echini,  mollusks,  and  fish-bones. 

In  plate  14  the  following  skeletons  are  shown:  Figure  1  represents  4  skeletons 
mentioned  in  the  description  of  the  skeleton  shown  in  plate  11,  figure  1. 

The  5  skeletons  shown  in  figure  2  were  found  in  burial  Pit  3  on  the  Aglagax 
village  site  on  Umnak  Island.  The  bones  of  the  first  skeleton  were  encountered  at 
a  depth  of  1  meter.  It  soon  became  obvious  that  beneath  these  were  the  bones  of 
other  skeletons.  When  the  entire  heap  of  bones  had  been  cleared  of  earth  and 
kitchen  refuse,  it  appeared  that  there  were  5  skeletons  in  the  pit,  with  knees  drawn 
up  to  the  chin,  and  lying  one  over  the  other.  Doubtless  this  was  their  original  posi- 


52 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


tion,  since  if  they  had  fallen  afterwards,  their  disposition  would  not  have  been  so 
regular.  Three  of  the  skeletons  lay  with  'skulls  to  the  east,  and  2  with  skulls  to 
the  west.  Evidently  2  bodies  had  been  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  pit  with  heads  to 
the  east;  the  second  pair  was  placed  above  these  with  heads  to  the  west,  and  then 
the  fifth  was  laid  with  head  to  the  east.  The  pairs  of  bodies  lay  back  to  back  with 
knees  drawn  up  to  the  chin.  It  may  be  supposed  that  all  5  bodies  were  disposed  of  at 
one  time  and  were  probably  warriors  killed  in  battle.  As  has  been  explained,  the 
Aleut  disposed  of  their  dead  and  set  them  up  in  the  favorite  squatting  posture  of 
the  living.  There  is,  in  my  opinion,  no  contradiction  in  the  fact  that  some  of  the 
skeletons  were  found  on  their  sides,  since  while  sleeping  the  Aleut  also  like  to  draw 
up  their  knees. 

Figure  3  represents  1  of  2  skeletons  found  in  burial  Pit  2  of  the  Aglagax 
site.  The  framework  of  the  roof  of  the  pit  had  evidently  been  made  of  wooden 
planks.  On  the  floor  were  the  remains  of  4  decayed  posts,  2.5  meters  apart.  Under 
the  skeleton  were  vestiges  of  decayed  logs  which  had  evidently  served  as  a  floor. 
It  should  be  noted  that  driftwood  is  more  common  on  Umnak  Island  than  on  any 
other  of  the  Aleutian  chain.  Therefore  the  Umnak  people  often  used  logs  as  mate¬ 
rial  for  the  framework  of  their  dwellings  or  burial  pits  and  not  the  more  usual 
whale-bones.  The  remnants  of  rotted  wood  give  an  approximate  indication  of  the 
recent  age  of  the  burial  place.  Evidently  the  skeleton  had  originally  been  in  a  sitting 
posture  and  had  fallen  when  the  ceiling  crumbled.  In  falling  on  its  back,  the  arms 
had  stretched  out,  and  the  bent  legs  fallen  to  the  sides.  The  clayey  earth  of  the  pit 
was  intermingled  with  decayed  organic  matter.  There  was  no  kitchen  refuse,  but 
near  the  skeletons  were  found  many  bone  wedges  which  had  been  used  for  splitting 
the  logs  for  the  burial  pit.  After  the  removal  of  the  skeletons,  the  pit  was  dug  down 
another  meter,  but  no  further  remains  were  found. 

In  figure  4  may  be  seen  a  skeleton  found  during  excavation  of  the  large  pit  on 
the  Tanaxtaxax  site  on  Amaknax  Island,  at  a  depth  of  1.3  meters.  Somewhat  above 
the  skeleton,  about  a  meter  deep,  were  found  the  disjointed  fragments  of  2  quite 
decayed  skeletons,  whose  original  position  it  was  impossible  to  determine.  The  skele¬ 
ton  illustrated  was  stretched  out  on  its  right  side  and  was  the  only  one  found  in 
this  position.  The  arms  as  well  as  the  legs  were  stretched  to  their  full  length. 
Somewhat  deeper  than  the  skeleton,  near  the  walls  of  the  pit,  were  found  the  bones 
of  large  whales,  which  evidently  had  been  the  framework  of  the  roof  of  an  under¬ 
ground  dwelling  older  than  the  one  in  which  the  skeleton  was  found.  The  skeleton 
had  evidently  been  left  in  the  position  in  which  the  individual  had  been  killed. 
Judging  from  the  length  of  the  skeleton  and  the  dolichocephalic  index  of  the  skull, 
it  was  the  body  of  a  Russian. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  14 


i-i  <N 


Four  skeletons  found  in  excavation  of  Nanikax,  Attu  Island,  at  depth  of  1.5  meters.  3.  Skeleton  from  Aglagax,  Umnak  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.5  meters. 

Five  skeletons  found  in  excavation  of  Aglagax,  Umnak  Island,  at  depth  of  1.8  meters.  4.  Skeleton  from  Tanaxtaxax,  Amaknax  Island,  found  at  depth  of  1.3  meters. 


till 


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; 

-  •-  •  ■  -J 


CHAPTER  V. 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  REMAINS  FROM  KITCHEN  MIDDENS. 

During  the  excavation  of  ancient  Aleut  villages  many  sections  of  stone  and 
bone  weapons  and  implements  used  in  war,  hunting,  fishing,  and  manufacture  were 
brought  to  light.  However,  parts  of  wooden  implements  and  weapons  and  binding 
materials  like  thread,  sinew,  or  leather  thongs  had  decayed,  not  leaving  any  traces. 

To  make  clear  the  significance  of  stone  and  bone  sections  of  weapons  and  imple¬ 
ments  illustrated  in  this  work,  it  seems  necessary,  as  a  preliminary,  to  present  a 
general  characterization  of  these  both  for  the  old  and  the  present-day  Aleut.  A 
detailed  description  of  implements,  their  form,  size,  methods  of  attaching  distinct 
parts,  etc.,  will  be  given  in  the  section  on  material  culture.1  At  this  point  we  will  give 
only  a  schematic  representation  and  general  description  of  the  2  main  types  of  Aleut 
weapons — the  harpoon  and  throwing-lance. 

HARPOON  AND  THROWING-LANCE. 

Harpoons  are  called  throwing-arrows  or  spears  when  the  pointed  head  fits 
loosely  into  the  socket  of  the  foreshaft  of  the  weapon  and  is  detached  from  it  when 
it  strikes  the  animal,  remaining  in  the  wound.  There  are  2  main  types  of  harpoons : 
(1)  a  simple  harpoon,  with  a  head  that  retains  its  original  position  after  striking 
an  animal;  (2)  a  compound  or  toggle-headed  harpoon  in  which  the  head  assumes 
a  transverse  position  when  an  obstruction  is  encountered. 

The  simple  Aleut  harpoon  (ayu'kdax',  a  small  harpoon;  aga'lgix',  a  large  har¬ 
poon)  usually  consists  of  4  parts,  exclusive  of  the  binding  materials — threads,  glue, 
and  paints.  These  are  (fig.  7  a  to  d)  :  a ,  shaft  (Aleut,  i'glax ') ;  b,  bone  foreshaft 
(Aleut,  tumga'kix2) ;  c,  bone  head  (Aleut,  saxsidax\  a  small  harpoon;  cuni'lgix 
large  harpoon)  with  pointed  barbs  projecting  backward.  The  barbed  head  is  loosely 
fitted  into  a  socket  at  the  end  of  the  foreshaft  and  when  the  animal  is  struck,  it  pulls 
out  from  the  foreshaft.  The  sharp-pointed. barbs  (Aleut,  ta'lin ;  plur.  from  ta'lix\ 
branch)  penetrate  easily,  but  can  not  be  pulled  out  of  the  wound;  d  is  a  line  of 
braided  sinew  or  a  thong  (Aleut,  an).  One  end  of  the  line  is  attached  to  the  neck 
of  the  head  between  the  point  and  the  barbs  or  fastened  into  a  line-hole  of  the  barbed 
head  (see  c’).  The  other  end  is  attached  to  the  shaft  or  is  held  in  the  hand  of  the 
hunter.  In  the  first  case  we  are  dealing  with  a  small  and  light  harpoon  thrown  from 
a  throwing-board  with  the  right  arm  at  sea  animals  in  the  water  only,  while  the 
hunter  sits  in  his  skin  boat.  In  the  second  case,  on  land,  a  heavy  harpoon  is  thrown 
at  sea  mammals  at  short  range  while  they  lie  in  their  rookeries.  After  throwing  the 

1  It  had  been  the  intention  of  the  late  patron  of  the  Aleut-Kamchatka  Expedition,  Mr.  F.  P.  Riaboushinsky, 
to  publish  the  Aleut  work  in  several  parts. 

2  Tumga'kix  means  “its  ( i .  e.,  of  the  implement)  two  bones.”  The  dual  is  evidently  used  to  show  that  the 
foreshaft  is  bifurcated  from  the  side  where  it  is  attached  to  the  wooden  shaft. 


53 


54 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


heavy  harpoon  the  hunter  tightens  the  line  with  his  hand  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
wounded  animal,  while  another  hunter  kills  it  with  a  spear  or  club. 

Figure  8  represents  parts  of  a  compound  or  toggle-head  harpoon  (Aleut, 
akagu'six ')  in  the  most  prevalent  Aleut  form,  a  is  the  shaft  (Aleut,  i'glax ') ;  b,  a 
bone  ring  (Aleut,  tumux ');  and  c,  a  bone  foreshaft  (Aleut,  tu'mgax ').  The  tang 
of  the  bone  foreshaft  is  driven  into  a  socket  at  the  thicker  end  of  the  wooden  shaft, 
which  tapers  backward,  and  a  bone  ring  ( b )  is  placed  over  the  joint  to  prevent  the 
wooden  shaft  from  splitting  when  the  animal  is  struck.  On  the  upper  tip  of  the  bone 
foreshaft  the  bone  toggle-head  ( d )  (Aleut,  akagu'six ')3  with  an  inserted  stone  point 
( e )  (Aleut,  ka'dax ')  is  attached. 

Text-figure  8b  shows  how  the  parts  of  the  Aleut  toggle-head  harpoon  are  held 
together,  while  in  figure  8c  may  be  seen  the  position  of  the  head  in  the  body  of  the 
wounded  animal.  It  closes  the  wound  inside  like  the  toggle  of  a  cuff-button  and 
performs  the  same  function  as  the  barbed  bone  head  of  the  simple  harpoon,  but 
much  more  efficiently. 

The  schematic  representation  of  an  Aleut  toggle-headed  harpoon  given  in 
figure  8  is  drawn  after  a  specimen  secured  on  Umnak  Island  (Cat.  No.  1888). 
In  this  case,  the  head  is  loosely  attached  to  the  foreshaft  and  the  implement  sticks 
closely  to  the  body  of  the  wounded  animal,  preventing  it  from  plunging  into  the 
water.  The  ancient  Aleut  also  had  other  types  of  toggle-headed  harpoons.  In  one 
type  the  head  was  attached  to  a  long  line,  the  other  end  of  which  was  fastened  to 
the  shaft.  When  an  animal  is  struck,  the  head  becomes  detached,  the  heavy  bone 
foreshaft  dips  into  the  water,  and  the  lower  thin  end  of  the  wooden  shaft  floats  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  indicating  to  the  hunter  where  the  wounded  animal  has 
dived.4 

The  throwing-lance  may  be  distinguished  from  a  harpoon  by  the  fact  that 
all  its  parts  are  fixed  and  immovable.  This  lance  was  formerly  the  chief  weapon 
in  war,  and  also  used  to  kill  aquatic  animals  after  they  had  been  struck  by  a  harpoon. 
The  throwing-lance  usually  consists  of  three  parts  (fig.  9) :  a,  a  wooden  shaft 
(Aleut,  i'glax ')  ;  b,  bone  ring  or  belt  (Aleut,  tu'mux ')  ;  and  c,  d,  the  compound  head, 
consisting  of  the  barbed  bone  head  (Aleut,  igi'qax ')  and  stone  point  (Aleut, 
ka'dax').  The  bone  ring  consisted  usually  of  two  halves  (plate  26,  figs.  31, 
33,  and  40),  and  was  an  essential  portion  for  keeping  the  deadly  weapon.  The  length 
of  the  bone  section  of  the  head  was  equal  to  the  distance  between  the  planes  of  the 
chest  and  the  spine  of  a  man.  The  lance  striking  the  chest  passed  out  through  the 
back.  The  barbs  which  project  behind  hold  the  lance  in  the  wound.  Any  attempt 
to  pull  the  lance  from  the  wound  would  cause  great  pain  and  might  injure  tissues 
and  organs  not  touched  before.  Aleut  warriors  used  the  beak  of  an  albatross  as 

3  The  same  name  as  that  of  the  whole  harpoon. 

4  It  is  not  our  intention  to  enter  here  into  a  comparative  study  of  harpoons  as  described  by  Boas,  Kroeber, 
Mason,  Murdoch,  Turner,  Nelson,  and  others.  At  this  point  it  is  necessary  only  to  mention  harpoons  with  two 
foreshafts,  of  which  the  upper  one  is  called  a  loose  foreshaft.  The  toggle-head  is  placed  on  the  upper  end  of  the 
loose  foreshaft.  The  lower  end  of  the  loose  foreshaft  forms  a  joint  with  the  upper  end  of  the  foreshaft  Some 
writers  state  that  by  bending  the  loose  foreshaft  one  prevents  the  accidental  breaking  of  the  shaft  It  appears  to 
the  writer,  however,  that  when  the  loose  foreshaft  is  bent  the  toggle-head  is  assisted  to  take  a  transverse  position 
in  the  wound.  It  may  be  added  that  a  toggle-headed  harpoon  similar  to  the  Aleut  specimen  described,  where  the 
loose  toggle-head  is  not  detached  from  the  foreshaft,  has  not  been  reported  from  other  regions  where  the  harpoon 
has  been  used. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


55 


pincers  to  extract  the  lance  from  the  wound.  Above  the  tang  is  a  hole  (c)  or  sometimes 
2  ( e )  or  a  projection,  by  means  of  which  the  head  is  permanently  tied  to  the  shaft 
and  bone  belt  (figs.  53  and  54).  Such  perforation  or  projections  are  sometimes  seen 
above  the  tang  of  the  head  of  a  simple  harpoon.  But  the  tangs  of  both  these  weapons 
differ;  that  on  a  harpoon  is  always  broad  and  flat,  while  on  the  head  of  a  throwing- 
lance  it  is  usually  conical  in  form.  Writers  on  pre-historic  archaeology  usually 


c 


b 


7 

Fig.  7. — Sections  of 
a  simple  harpoon. 


harpoon.  throwing-lance. 


regard  the  bone  heads  of  implements  of  the  latest  Palaeolithic  period  of  Western 
Europe  as  harpoon-heads.  The  present  writer  believes  that  most  of  these  were  not 
harpoon-heads,  but  heads  of  throwing-lances  or  arrows,  i.  e.,  that  they  were  perma¬ 
nently  tied  to  the  shaft.  We  refer  particularly  to  the  heads  ascribed  to  the  Mag- 
dalenian  and  Azilian  epochs,  which  were  attached  to  the  shaft  by  means  of 
projections  above  the  tang,  or  the  tang  had  a  conical  and  not  a  flat  form.5 


5  See  J.  Dechelette,  Manuel  d’ Arche ologie,  Vol.  I,  Archeologie  Prehistorique,  Paris,  1908,  fig.  57,  p.  153; 
M.  Hoernes,  Natur  und  Urgeschichte  des  Menschen,  B.  II,  figs.  77,  78,  pp.  159,  160,  Wien,  1909;  H.  Obermaier, 
Prehistoric  Man  (Russian  translation  from  German),  Petrograd,  1913,  figs.  122,  132,  135,  pp.  227,  242,  241. 


5 


56 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


The  bone  head  of  a  throwing-lance  usually  terminates  in  a  stone  blade  or  point 
( d ).  In  this  case,  the  tang  of  the  stone  blade  may  be  inserted  in  a  slit  of  the  barbed 
bone  head  (/)  or  fastened  to  it  by  means  of  a  spoon-like  socket.  In  both  cases  the 
stone  blade  is  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  barbs.  The  second  method  of  attaching 
the  stone  blade  to  the  bone  head  predominates  (figs.  53,  54)  and  may  be  regarded  as 
an  Aleut  invention,  since  it  has  not  been  reported  from  any  other  people.  The  tang 
of  the  stone  blade  is  fastened  by  fish-glue  before  binding.  Sometimes  the  bone  head 
of  a  throwing-lance  is  pointed  at  the  top  (g)  and  has  no  stone  blade. 


SOURCE  MATERIAL  FOR  STONE  IMPLEMENTS. 


As  has  been  stated  in  the  introduction,  we  are  under  obligations  to  Professor 
W.  A.  Obruchov  for  the  determination  of  the  minerals  from  which  Aleut  stone 
implements  were  manufactured,  and  in  addition  for  an  indication  of  the  compara¬ 
tive  hardness  of  the  minerals.  Professor  Obruchov  prepared  a  list  of  the  minerals 
in  the  order  of  their  diminishing  hardness,  as  shown  by  knife  tests.  His  list  follows : 


(1)  Very  hard,  corresponding  to  No.  7  of  the  mineral- 

ogical  scale. 

(2)  Hard,  corresponding  to  No.  6  of  the  mineralogical 

scale. 

(3)  Medium-hard,  corresponding  to  No.  4  of  the 

mineralogical  scale. 


-  (4)  Soft,  corresponding  to  No.  3  of  the  mineralogical 
scale. 

(5)  Very  soft,  corresponding  to  No.  2  of  the  mineral¬ 
ogical  scale. 


Nos.  i  and  2  can  not  be  scratched  by  the  blade  of  a  steel  knife,  which  leaves  a 
gray  metallic  streak,  as  on  flint.  No.  3  may,  with  difficulty,  be  very  slightly  scratched 
with  a  steel  blade.  A  deeper  impression  can  be  made  on  No.  4  without  difficulty  with 
a  steel  knife;  No.  5  is  easily  scratched  with  a  steel  knife. 


MINERALS  LISTED  ACCORDING  TO  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  THEIR  HARDNESS.6 

No.  1. —  (1)  Hornstone  schist;  *(2)  hornstone  schist  with  thin  veins  of  quartz;  (3)  quartz  schist;  (4)  quartzite; 

(5)  opal;  (6)  semi-opal;  (7)  chalcedony  (agate)  with  quartz  and  carnelian;  *(8)  hematite  with 
quartz,  epidote,  and  chlorite. 

No.  2. — *(9)  Andesite,  very  glassy,  with  very  small  porphyritic  crystals;  *(10)  obsidian,  andesitic;  *(n)  lava 
(andesitic),  very  glassy  and  vesicular;  *(12)  quartz  diorite,  microgranular,  with  a  hornblende  altered 
in  a  green  brown  stuff ;  *(13)  augite  andesite;  *(14)  enstatite  augite  andesite;  *(15)  felsite  spherulitic, 
banded,  brick  red;  *(16)  tuff  of  porphyrite,  silicified. 

No.  3. —  (17)  Andesitic  lava,  altered;  *(18)  diabase  porphyrite,  altered;  (19)  quartz  limestone  (hard  marble). 
Nos.  3  or  4.7 — *(20)  Tuff  of  andesite;  (21)  hornstone  marl. 

No.  4. — *(22)  Quartz  slate,  very  fine  granular;  *(23)  tuff  of  tachylite  (basaltic,  glassy);  (24)  marble;  *(25) 
porphylite,  a  form  of  andesite  altered  by  volcanic  action;  *(26)  serpentine  of  an  antigorite  type. 

No.  4  or  5. 7 — *(27)  Slate  containing  a  volcanic  stuff. 

No.  5. —  (28)  Slate;  (29)  red  ocher;  (30)  white  volcanic  tuff  similar  to  the  sinerite  of  Auvergne,  France. 

In  describing  stone  objects,  the  number  of  the  mineral  as  given  in  the  list  above 
will  be  appended,  as  well  as  its  degree  of  hardness.  The  hardness  of  the  mineral  is 
an  important  factor  in  the  determination  of  its  ultimate  use.  For  instance,  stone 
hammers  for  chipping  arrow  or  lance  heads,  stone  knives  or  adzes,  or  stone  adzes 
for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  bone  objects,  are  of  the  hardest  minerals,  of  horn¬ 
stone  or  quartz-schists.  Andesite  (No.  9)  was  most  frequently  used  by  the  Aleut 
for  stone  implements.  This  took  the  place  of  flint,  a  much  harder  material.  Of  all 


6  Those  minerals  of  which  slides  were  made  for  microscopic  study  by  Professor  Obruchov  are  marked  by 
asterisks  (*)•  The  slides  were  made  by  Mr.  O.  W.  Knyrko,  preparator  of  the  Mineralogical  Museum  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  Petrograd. 

7  Independency  of  alteration  as  a  result  of  weathering. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitclien  Middens. 


57 


the  stone  implements  excavated  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  numbering  over  1,000,  not 
a  single  one  of  flint  was  found.  It  may  be  concluded,  therefore,  that  chalky  deposits 
in  which  concretions  of  veins  of  flint  occur  are  lacking  on  the  Aleutians.8  Andesite, 
although  not  as  hard  as  flint,  has  a  conchoidal  cleavage  and  gives  a  sharp  cutting- 
edge,  and  is,  therefore,  an  available  material  for  manufacturing  stone  implements. 

Soapstone,  of  which  the  Eskimo  usually  make  lamps  and  kettles,  was  not  used 
among  the  Aleut  However,  Chamisso  found  kaoline  porphyry  which  may  be  altered 
into  steatite,9 10  between  Unalaska  and  Makushin  villages  on  Unalaska  Island. 

The  Eskimo  prefer  soapstone  as  lamp  material.  It  is  readily  carved,  has  no 
cracks,  lends  itself  to  a  high  degree  of  surface  finish,  and  retains  heat.  Fat  is  easily 
melted  in  a  soapstone  lamp.  Where  steatite  only  is  available,  the  Eskimo  use  it  for 
manufacturing  lamps.  The  Central  Eskimo,  according  to  Professor  Boas  ( The  Cen¬ 
tral  Eskimo,  p.  469),  undertake  long  journeys  in  search  of  soapstone,  which  is  found 
only  in  a  few  places  and  seldom  in  quantities  sufficient  for  manufacturing  lamps  and 
cooking  vessels  (see  Holmes,  Handbook  of  Aboriginal  American  Antiquities,  Part  I, 
Introductory,  The  Lithic  Industries,  Washington,  1917,  p.  228).  This  is  also  true 
of  Alaska.  Soapstone  has  been  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  important  objects  for 
barter  (see  Hough,  The  Lamp  of  the  Eskimo,  Report  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum 
for  1891,  p.  1031).  The  Eskimo  of  Baffin  Land  and  Hudson  Bay  also  manufacture 
their  lamps  and  kettles  of  steatite  (Boas,  The  Eskimo  of  Baffin  Land  and  Hudson 
Bay,  Bulletin  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York,  vol.  15,  part  1,  1901, 
p.  41).  The  Aleut,  as  will  be  seen,  manufactured  lamps  of  harder  minerals  (see 
plates  18,  19,  and  20).  The  Kodiak  also  use  harder  minerals  for  lamps  (see  Hough, 
1.  c.,  p.  1032).  Sandstone  lamps  are  also  used  as  objects  of  barter  among  the  Asiatic 
Eskimo  and  Chukchee  (see  Bogoras,  The  Chukchee,  Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition, 
Vol.  VII,  1904,  p.  187). 

The  ancient  Aleut  recognized  and  discriminated  between  the  qualities  of  differ¬ 
ent  minerals  and  their  usefulness  for  different  types  of  implements.  Some  of  the 
Aleut  terms  for  minerals  were  recorded.  The  general  name  for  stone  is  nux\ 
Andesite  is  called  umgi'  dax' ;  slate  is  called  i'gax 10  the  hard  schists  (hornstone  and 
quartz  schists)  are  called  a'n-kix ;  green  hornstone  schist  is  called  nu'gim-cidgayu', 
i.  e.,  the  green  stone;  tuff  of  andesite,  uya'nix';  vesicular  andesitic  lava,  amdi'xtix 
microgranular  andesitic  lava,  cigiinix\ 

According  to  information  received  from  the  Aleut,  all  the  minerals  enumerated 
in  the  preceding  list  were  obtained  by  their  ancestors  on  the  Aleutian  Islands.  Thus, 
boulders  of  green  hornstone-schist,  for  axes  and  celts,  were  brought  from  Agatu 
Island  by  the  Attu  people;  pebbles  of  the  same  material  were  collected  on  Umnak 
Island  on  the  shore  near  the  former  village  of  Natxu'kaxb  The  Atka  people  went 
to  Siguan  Island  for  andesite  and  andesitic  lava.  Only  the  marble  of  which  the 
labrets  were  manufactured  was  obtained  from  the  Alaskan  Peninsula  through 

barter.  ( Text  continued  on  p.  59.) 

8  It  may  be  noted  that  Weniaminoff  mentions  one  chalky  deposit  on  Samalga  Island  (see  Weniaminoff, 
part  I,  p.  157). 

9  See  O.  Kotzebue,  Voyage ,  1815-1818,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  340,  Russian  edition. 

10  As  will  be  seen  later,  the  woman’s  flat  knife  is  called  iga'dax the  diminutive  of  i'gax \  of  which  material 
it  is  usually  made. 


58 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Description  of  Plate  15. 

Fig.  1  (1312).  A  leaf-shaped  knife  of  andesite,  without  a  handle  (hardness  2,  No.  9)  :  length,  140  mm.,  width 
48  mm.  It  had  served  as  a  hand  weapon  in  war  and  in  hunting  was  used  to  cut  up  sea  mammals. 
It  was  called  cunu'six '.  As  will  be  seen  later,  such  knives  could  have  no  handles.  From  the  village 
site,  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  2  (565).  Andesite  point  or  blade  (ka'dax')  of  a  throwing-lance  (akagu'six')  for  sea-lions  and  seals  (hard¬ 
ness  2,  No.  9).  The  lance,  akagu’six ',  was  thrown  at  a  sea  mammal  after  the  animal  had  been 
wounded  by  a  harpoon.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  3  (640).  An  andesite  point  of  a  throwing-lance  called  in  the  Atka  dialect  uga’lux '  (Hardness  2,  No.  9),  used 
for  hunting  sea-lions  and  seals.  Found  in  cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  4  (3S7)-  A  spear-point  like  No.  2  (565).  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  5  (424).  A  spear-point  of  quartz-slate  similar  to  preceding  (hardness  4,  No.  22).  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Id. 

Fig.  6  (1555).  A  fragment  of  an  andesite  knife  called  cunu'six '  (see  No.  1,  1312).  Found  at  a  depth  of  2.5  meters 
at  Pit  1,  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  7  (1314).  A  semicircular  knife  of  andesite  (hardness  2,  No.  9),  length  91  mm.,  width  55  mm.,  which  had 
served  also  as  a  scraper  and  saw.  From  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  8  (472).  A  point  of  an  unfinished  andesite  throwing-lance  (see  No.  2,  565).  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  9  (1293).  A  fragment  of  a  knife,  cunu'six '  (see  No.  1,  1312).  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  10  (872).  A  point  of  a  throwing-lance  of  andesite.  It  differs  from  No.  2  (565)  in  that  the  base  is  not 
rounded,  but  straight.  Evidently  it  had  not  been  inserted  in  a  spoon-like  cavity  of  a  bone  head,  but  in 
its  bifurcated  upper  end.  From  Hala'ca,  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  11  (1234).  An  unfinished  andesite  point  for  a  throwing-lance  used  in  hunting  seals.  Length  97  mm.,  width 
30  mm.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  12  (1233d).  A  knife  (cunu'six') ,  fragment  (see  No.  1,  1312)  of  andesitic  obsidian  (hardness  2,  No.  10). 
From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  13  (1311).  A  fragment  of  a  curved  carving-knife  (umqisi' six')  of  andesite.  From  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  14  (1233).  A  saw  of  andesite  (hardness  2,  No.  9)  for  cutting  bones.  Evidently  it  had  had  no  handle.  From 
Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  15  (1389).  A  skin-scraper  of  slate  containing  volcanic  tuff  (hardness  4,  No.  27).  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  16  (398).  Andesite  point  of  a  throwing-lance  (see  No.  2,  565).  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  17  (402).  Andesite  adze  for  wood  working,  called  sna'sim  iga'.12  The  blade  is  finely  chipped  but  not  polished. 
From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  18.  An  adze,  similar  to  the  preceding,  of  quartz  schist  (hardness  1,  No.  3),  for  working  in  bone.  From  Ukix, 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  19  (1283).  An  adze,  like  the  preceding,  of  green  quartz  schist,  polished.  Length  60  mm.,  width  57  mm.  From 
Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  20  (1472).  An  adze  of  green  quartz  schist  with  the  blade  only  polished.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  21  (996).  Point  of  a  war  throwing-dart  ( igi'qax ')  of  andesitic  obsidian  (hardness  2,  No.  10).  The  end  of  the 
point  is  broken  off.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  22  (1029).  An  andesite  point  like  preceding.  From  a  depth  of  5.1  meters  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Id. 

Fig.  23  (1973).  A  curved  andesite  knife  (umqisi' six') .  Such  a  knife  had  a  bone  handle.  From  Amaknax,  on  the 
island  of  the  same  name. 

Fig.  24.  A  knife  like  the  preceding,  of  andesite.  Length  76  mm.  From  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  25  (1546).  An  adze  (sna’sim-iga’)  of  green  quartz  schist.  The  blade  is  polished.  Found  at  a  depth  of  1.5 
meter  in  Pit  1  at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  26  (2097).  A  small  unfinished  ax  of  green  quartz  schist.  Length  115  mm.  Found  at  a  depth  of  3  meters,  at 
Tanaxta'xax',  Amaknak  Island. 

Fig.  27  (1998).  An  andesite  knife  which  had  originally  had  a  wooden  or  bone  handle.  From  Natxu'kax',  Umnak 
Island. 

Fig.  28  (1125).  A  curved  knife  of  andesite  (see  No.  23).  Length,  74  mm.  From  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  29  (1296).  A  fragment  of  an  adze  of  green  quartz  schist  with  a  polished  blade.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Id. 

Fig.  30  (1214).  A  chisel  of  green  quartz  schist  with  polished  blade.  Length  45  mm.,  width  22  mm.  From  Pit  3, 
Ukix  site,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  31  (1976).  Andesite  point  of  a  toggle-head  harpoon.  From  Amaknak  village  site,  Amaknak  Island. 

Fig.  32  (1477).  A  curved  knife  of  andesite  with  a  broken  point.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  33  (1222).  A  knife  similar  to  No.  32,  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff  (hardness  3.  No.  20).  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  34  (925).  A  fragment  of  an  andesitic  adze  used  for  wood  working.  Though  the  adze  is  not  polished,  it  is 
finely  chipped  (see  No.  17).  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  35  (1286).  A  small  polished  adze  of  green  quartz  schist.  Length  44  mm.,  width  37  mm.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Id. 

Fig.  36  (1285).  A  curved  carving-knife  (umqisi' six')  of  andesite.  Length  112  mm.,  width  30  mm.  From  Agla'gax', 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  37  (1475).  An  andesite  knife  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  without  a  projection  for  securing  it  to  a  handle. 

However,  we  were  informed  by  the  Aleut  that  the  back  of  the  knife  was  inserted  in  a  wooden  handle. 
Length  95  mm.,  width  40  mm.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  38  (1476).  A  curved  knife  of  andesite.  Length  65  mm.,  width  36  mm.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  39  (994).  Unfinished  point  of  andesitic  obsidian  for  a  small  toggle-head  harpoon  (hardness  2,  No.  10).  From 
Pit  1,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  40  (1982).  A  fragment  of  an  andesite  knife.  From  Amaknak,  Amaknak  Island. 

Fig.  41  (406).  An  adze  of  green  quartz  schist  (hardness  1,  No.  3),  with  polished  blade.  From  Nani'kax',  Umnak  Id. 

12  Sna'sim  iga'  means  “stone  of  the  ax,”  from  sna'six',  ax  or  adze,  with  a  wooden  handle,  and  i'gax',  stone 

of  slate.  Axes  and  adzes  were  made  chiefly  of  quartz  and  hornstone  schists. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  15 


4  .rfr  '/SttBy 

36 


40 


tAVt‘ 

'  « 

■  '  » 


:~"V'  '  ”  'UtKSS 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


59 


Doctor  Dali  states  that  “  there  is  hardly  any  stone  on  the  islands,  such  as  ser¬ 
pentine,  fit  for  making  celts  or  adzes,”  and  that  “  in  only  one  case,  that  of  a  com¬ 
paratively  modern,  though  prehistoric,  burial  place,  has  one  adze  or  celt  been  found 
in  the  Aleutian  Islands.”  11  We  have  shown  that  on  the  islands  may  be  found  harder 
minerals  than  serpentine  for  making  implements,  which  is  fourth  with  reference  to 
hardness  in  our  list.  That  many  stone  adzes,  chisels,  and  some  axes  were  found  will 
be  seen  in  the  descriptions  of  the  plates  and  drawings.  Dali  says,  further,  that  no 
grooved  axes  or  hammers  were  found.  This  is  true  only  with  reference  to  axes 
(plate  17).  The  fact  that  grooved  axes  were  not  found,  may  be  explained,  not  by 
lack  of  skill  to  manufacture  them,  but  by  lack  of  need  for  this  type  of  implement. 
There  are  no  standing  trees  on  the  islands,  and  bone  wedges  and  stone  hammers 
suffice  for  splitting  driftwood. 

For  polishing  stone  and  bone  implements,  the  Aleut  used  andesitic  lava,  evi¬ 
dently  because  of  the  absence  on  the  islands  of  pumice  or  rhyolitic  lava,  which  is  a 
better  polishing-material  than  andesitic  lava. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  Aleut  prefer  andesitic  minerals  for  their  imple¬ 
ments  to  the  more  ancient  volcanic  rocks  of  the  basaltic  series,  although  basalt  is 
found  on  many  of  the  islands. 

Red  ocher  and  white  volcanic  tuff  (Nos.  29  and  30  in  the  list  of  minerals)  were 
often  found  in  the  excavation  of  ancient  .dwellings,  and  served  as  paint  materials. 
In  some  sections,  pieces  of  red  felsite  (No.  15)  occurred,  but  nowhere  were  imple¬ 
ments  of  this  material  found.  We  were  told  that  felsite,  when  powdered  and  mixed 
with  oil,  furnished  an  excellent  lasting  paint.  More  frequently  than  felsite  were 
found  pieces  of  hematite  (No.  8)  which  evidently  had  some  religious  significance. 
It  was  called  a'xsix',  a  term  applied  to  all  objects  supposed  to  have  miraculous 
power.  The  present-day  Aleut  call  hematite,  ca'gax'.  Pieces  of  hematite  were  worn 
by  every  hunter,  for  they  were  said  to  have  the  power  of  attracting  sea  mammals, 
and  particularly  whales. 

STONE  IMPLEMENTS  AND  WEAPONS. 

Descriptions  of  the  objects  excavated  will  be  given  in  the  order  of  their  appear¬ 
ance  on  the  plates.  The  material  has  been  arranged  according  to  types  of  specimens 
rather  than  by  locality  in  order  to  obtain  a  clearer  view  of  Aleut  culture.  For  the 
same  reason  the  drawings  in  the  text  follow  the  same  order  as  the  plates.  In  the 
following  description  of  plates  the  specimens  will  be  given  their  designation  as  in 
the  plates,  followed  by  the  field  number  or  that  under  which  they  are  at  present  to 
be  found  in  the  Rumiantzeff  Museum  in  Moscow. 

Text-figures  10  to  26  should  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  specimens 
illustrated  in  plate  15. 

( Text  continued  on  p.  67.) 


11  See  Dali,  On  Succession  of  Shell-Heaps  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  p.  83. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


61 


Text-fig.  io  (540).  Andesite  (hardness  2,  No.  9)  point  of  a  throwing-spear  ( igi'qax ')  used  in  hunting  large  sea 
mammals.  It  is  roughly  chipped  and  carelessly  trimmed  to  produce  the  saw-like  edges,  which  cause 
a  lacerated  wound.  Its  form  is  reminiscent  of  the  Acheulean  weapons  of  western  Europe.  From  Sin, 
Attu  Island. 

Text-fig.  ii  (860).  Andesite  point  of  a  throwing-spear  used  for  hunting  sea-lions  and  whales.  Its  form  is  like 
that  of  a  knife  ( cunu'six ')  but  the  old  Aleut  informed  us  that  it  is  the  blade  of  a  throwing-spear 
made  by  an  unskilled  worker.  It  is  roughly  worked  up  with  unequal  sides.  Found  broken  at  Hala'ca, 
Atka  Island. 

Text-fig.  12  (447).  Point  of  a  war  throwing-spear  made  of  hornstone  schist  with  a  thin  vein  of  quartz  (hard¬ 
ness  1,  No.  2).  It  is  carefully  chipped,  the  edges  are  well  trimmed,  and  it  has  barbs  projecting  back¬ 
ward  and  a  rounded  stem.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Text-fig.  13  (220).  A  point  similar  to  figure  12,  but  larger.  It  is  of  greenish-brown  hornstone  schist  (hardness  1, 
No.  1).  Found  in  the  cave  of  Goltzef  Bay,  Attu  Island. 

Text-fig.  14  (1531).  An  andesite  point  similar  to  the  preceding,  more  roughly  made,  not  carefully  trimmed,  and 
with  serrated  edges.  Found  in  Pit  4  at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island,  beneath  the  kitchen  remains  on  the 
clayey  undisturbed  soil. 


Text-fig.  is  (1912).  An  andesite  point  with  serrated  edges  made  for  causing  a  lacerated  wound.  Found  at  a 
depth  of  4  feet  at  Amaknax,  on  Amaknax  Island. 

Text-fig.  16  (a  to  h).  (a,  830)  a  point  of  andesite  for  a  harpoon  called  akagu'six '.  From  Hala'ca,  Atka  Island. 

( b ,  1290;  c,  1541,  and  d,  1291)  are  lancets  for  bleeding  ( uxtu'sin ,  plural  of  uxtu'six ')  of  andesitic 
obsidian  with  sharp  edges.13  They  were  used  by  ancient  Aleut  surgeons  or  curers  without  a  handle. 
Found  on  Umnak  Island,  b  and  d  at  Ukix  and  c  in  Pit  4,  Uglu'dax'.  e,  1294;  f,  1535!  9,  995,  and  h, 
2103)  are  points  of  arrow  heads  for  a  bow  ( sa'yigim  agada'gan  kada'nin ).  e  is  opal ;  /,  g,  and  h  are 
made  of  andesitic  obsidian,  e  was  found  at  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island;  f  at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak 
Island;  g  in  Pit  1,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island;  h  at  Tanaxta'xax',  Amaknax  Island. 

Text-ftg.  17  (1066).  A  small  curved  knife  ( umqisi'six )  of  andesite.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 
Text-fig.  18  (765),  A,  B.  A  is  a  large  curved  knife  ( umqisi'six ')  of  andesite,  with  a  short  bone  handle  attached 
to  the  stem  of  the  knife.  It  had  served  as  a  tool  for  working  in  wood  or  bone  and  for  cutting  up 
sea  mammals.  In  fighting  it  was  used  like  a  dagger.  The  straight  back  of  the  dagger  was  sharpened 
like  the  curved  side  and,  like  all  other  curved  knives,  it  is  two-edged.  B  is  the  transverse  section 
through  the  middle.  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Text-fig.  19  (641).  An  andesite  knife  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  somewhat  shorter  and  with  a  rounded  stem 
like  that  of  the  stone  point  of  a  war  throwing-spear  (see  fig.  12).  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka 
Island. 

13  For  comparison,  see  H.  Newell  Wardle,  Stone  Implements  of  Surgery  from  San  Miguel  Island,  Cali¬ 
fornia  (American  Anthropologist,  vol.  15,  No.  4,  1913,  pp.  656-660). 


62 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Text-fig.  20  (644).  Unfinished  point  of  a  throwing-spear.  Found  in  the  same  place  as  figure  18. 

Text-fig.  21  (1981).  Unfinished  knife  of  white  chalcedony  with  specks  of  red  carnelian  and  quartz  crystals 
(hardness  1,  No.  7).  Amaknax  Site,  Amaknak  Island. 

Text-fig.  22  (2106).  A  small  knife  of  dark-green  hornstone  schist  almost  as  hard  as  flint.  It  was  used  for  cutting 
and  carving  bone.  The  back  is  thicker  than  the  nicely  trimmed  blade  and  well  polished.  Found  at  a 
depth  of  2.4  meters  at  Tanaxta'xax*,  Amaknax  Island. 

Text-fig.  23,  A,  B.  A  (1473),  an  andesite  adze  used  for  working  in  wood.  From  Uglu'dax*,  Umnak  Island. 

B  (5 76),  the  upper  part  of  an  andesite  adze.  It  has  two  notches  on  the  top  for  fastening  to  the 
handle  in  transverse  positions.  From  Sin,  Attu  Island. 


Text-fig.  24  (406).  An  adze  of  hornstone  schist  (hardness  1,  No.  1),  with  a  polished  blade.  A,  front;  B,  side 
view.  From  Nani'kax*,  Attu  Island. 

Text-fig.  25  (2995).  A  small  unfinished  adze  of  silicified  porphyritic  green  tuff.  The  edges  are  finely  chipped  and 
the  sides  polished.  Found  at  a  depth  of  1  meter  at  Tanaxta'xax*,  Amaknax  Island. 

Text-fig.  26  ( A  to  C).  Three  andesite  chisels  used  for  planing  wood,  called  Y a' gam-nan  agu'six *,  i.  e.,  “tool  for 
working  in  wood.”  With  this  tool  were  made  shafts  for  weapons  and  instruments  and  frames  for 
skin  boats.  These  tools  had  no  handles  and  are  finely  chipped  on  all  edges.  A  (1534)  was  found  at 
Uglu'dax*,  Umnak  Island;  B  (1221)  was  found  at  Ukix,  Umnak  Island;  C  (1984)  was  found  at 
Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens 


63 


The  following  text-figures  all  refer  to  the  objects  shown  in  plate  16: 

Text-fig.  27  (1377).  Fragment  of  a  woman’s  tailoring  knife  ( iga'dax ')  of  hornstone  schist,  with  a  drilled 
hole,  for  fastening  to  a  wooden  handle.  Ukix.  Umnak  Island. 

Text-fig.  28  (439).  Fragment  of  a  woman’s  slate  tailoring  knife  (hardness  5,  No.  28).  The  dotted  line  shows 
the  size  of  the  entire  knife  with  a  wooden  handle  fastened  to  it.  This  type  of  knife  was  used 
by  women  for  cutting  hides  and  leather  for  clothing  and  footwear.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 


Text-fig.  29  (1854).  Andesite  knife  (curin' six')14  with  serrated  edges.  This  type  of  knife  had  a  short  handle. 
From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Text-fig.  30  (218)  A,  B.  A,  knife  ( cunu’six ')  used  without  a  handle  and  made  of  dark-brownish  hornstone  schist, 
with  thin  veins  of  quartz  (hardness  1,  No.  2)  ;  B,  transverse  section  of  middle  of  this  knife. 
Found  in  the  cave  at  Holtzef  Bay  (see  plate  7,  fig.  6),  Attu  Island. 

Text-fig.  31  (876).  Fragment  of  a  knife  (cunu’six')  used  without  a  handle.  The  dotted  line,  showing  the 
probable  missing  portion  of  the  knife,  has  been  drawn  in  accordance  with  directions  by  the  Aleut. 
From  Hala'ca,  Atka  Island. 


14  See  above,  p.  60. 


64 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Description  of  Plate  16. 

Fig.  i  (848).  Fragment  of  a  man’s  large  knife  of  andesite,  called  utu'qnux '.  This  type  of  knife  was  used  for  any 
work  in  wood.  The  Aleut  who  assisted  in  the  excavations  were  of  the  opinion  that  the  knife  was 
inserted  into  a  wooden  handle.  Its  unusual  width  was  explained  by  the  desire  to  use  it  for  a  long 
time,  since  it  would  be  continually  ground  off  when  being  sharpened.  The  knife  is  polished,  par¬ 
ticularly  at  the  blade.  It  was  found  in  two  pieces  which  were  later  glued  together.  From  Hala'ca, 
Atka  Island. 

Fig.  2  (1965).  A  fragment  of  a  ground  knife  ( utuq'nux ')  of  andesite.  From  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  3  (222).  Fragment  of  a  knife  similar  to  the  preceding.  In  the  Attu  dialect  a  large  knife  is  called  qama'  xtix\ 
and  a  small  one,  ma'gyix '.  This  type  of  knife  was  used  chiefly  for  cutting  food — fish,  seals,  octopi, 
etc.  Found  in  the  cave  at  Holtzef  Bay  (see  plate  7,  fig.  6),  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  4  (2011).  Fragment  of  an  andesite  knife  ( utu'qnux ').  Found  at  a  depth  of  7  feet  9  inches  at  Xata'cxan, 
Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  5  (735).  Man’s  knife,  utu'qnux like  figure  1,  but  of  quartz  slate  (hardness  4,  No.  22).  It  is  polished  all 
over.  Slate  is  more  easily  polished  than  andesite.  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island.- 

Fig.  6  (920).  Fragment  of  an  andesite  knife  reminding  one  of  a  woman’s  knife  ( iga'dax ').  At  the  top  are  traces 
of  perforations  by  which  it  may  have  been  attached  to  a  wooden  handle.  Found  in  digging  a  kitchen 
garden  at  Captain  Bay,  Unalaska. 

Fig.  7  (2014).  Fragment  of  an  andesite  knife,  evidently  a  woman’s  knife,  judging  by  the  trace  of  a  perforation  in 
the  middle.  Found  at  a  depth  of  2.4  meters  at  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  8  (849).  Fragment  of  a  knife  similar  to  figure  1  and  made  of  g-reen  quartz  slate  (hardness  4,  No.  22).  From 
Hala'ca,  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  9  (2086).  Fragment  of  an  andesite  knife  similar  to  No.  1,  which  has  been  ground  off  from  sharpening.  Found 
on  Hog  Island. 

Fig.  10  (19 66).  Two-bladed  knife  of  slate  containing  volcanic  tuff,  polished.  The  stem,  which  had  been  attached 
to  a  bone  handle,  is  broken  off.  From  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  11  (1982).  Knife,  similar  to  the  preceding,  of  slate  containing  volcanic  tuff.  Length  136  mm.  From  Pit  1, 
Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  12  (734).  Knife  of  quartz  slate  with  a  rounded  blade,  reminding  one  of  a  woman’s  knife.  From  Cave  2, 
Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  13  (735a).  Slate  (hardness  5,  No.  28)  knife  similar  to  figure  1.  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  14  (1383).  Fragment  of  a  woman’s  knife  of  slate,  with  a  perforation  made  by  drilling  for  attaching  to  a 
handle.  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  15  (358).  Fragment  of  an  andesite  knife,  similar  to  figure  2.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  16  (1224).  Woman’s  slate  knife  ( iga'dax ').  Length  137  mm.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  17  (1292).  Man’s  andesite  knife.  The  straight  stem  was  inserted  in  a  wooden  handle;  the  point  is  unfinished. 

The  Aleut  give  it  the  same  name  as  the  two-pointed  knife  in  plate  15,  figure  1,  cunu'six '.  Length 
122  mm.,  greatest  width  47  mm.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  18  (1163).  Knife  similar  to  the  preceding,  finished.  Length  134  mm.,  width  49  mm.  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  19  (763).  Andesite  blade  of  the  head  of  a  throwing-lance.  Found  at  a  depth  of  2.8  meters  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax', 
Atka  Island. 

Fig.  20  (1456).  Whetstone  of  andesitic  tuff,  for  grinding  and  polishing  bone  foreshafts  and  heads.  The  Aleut 
call  it  cumli'six '.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  21  (1342).  Unfinished  andesitic  point  of  a  throwing-lance.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  22  (671).  Tool  for  softening  skins  (Aleut,  cigu'nix ')  of  micro-vesicular  andesitic  lava.  From  Cave  2,  Atxalax, 
Atka  Island. 

Fig.  23  (2024).  Whetstone  of  micro- vesicular  andesitic  lava  for  polishing  stone  implements.  From  Xata'cxan, 
Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  24  (1225).  Fragment  of  a  woman’s  knife  of  andesitic  tuff.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  25  (506).  Piece  of  andesitic  lava,  glassy  and  coarse  vesicular,  used  for  a  rude  preliminary  polishing  of  stone 
and  bone  implements  (hardness  2,  No.  11).  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  26  (1315).  Implement  of  andesite  with  a  rounded  fine  chipped  blade  which  had  evidently  served  as  a  scraper. 
Length  92  mm.,  width  60  mm.  From  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  27  (1287).  Curved  andesite  knife.  Length  123  mm.,  width  34  mm.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  28  (355).  Point  of  a  throwing-lance  made  of  quartz  schist  (hardness  7,  No.  3).  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  16 


{■,%'  !tt 


Knives  and  other  implements  of  stone.  About  two-fifths  natural  size. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


65 


Text-fig.  32A  (1231)  and  B  (1233).  Fragments  of  man’s  knives  ( curin' six ').  A  is  of  andesite;  B  is  of 
andesitic  obsidian.  These  knives  were  used  chiefly  for  cutting  up  sea  mammals,  but  in  war  they 
were  used  as  daggers.  The  Aleut  kept  them  hidden  in  the  sleeves  of  their  overcoats  and  pro¬ 
duced  them  when  attacked.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Text-fig.  33  (416) .  Lance-point  of  hornstone  schist  (hardness  1,  No.  1).  The  lance  was  called  qulgu’yax '. 

This  stone  point  was  fastened  directly  to  the  wooden  shaft.  The  lance  was  used  both  in  attacking 
sea  mammals  when  in  their  rookeries  and  men.  Found  at  a  depth  of  4 .7  meters  (see  p.  26),  Pit  4, 
Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Text-fig.  34  (A,  B ).  A  (643),  implement  of  andesite  for  sawing  small  bones.  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka 
Island.  B,  small  knife  with  a  convex  upper  end.  It  had  had  a  bone  or  wooden  handle  and  was 
used  for  cutting  off  thin  longitudinal  splints  from  the  leg  bones  of  birds  for  making  awls  and 
needles  (see  also  fig.  66).  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Text-fig.  35  (1314).  Disk-shaped  implement  of  andesite  which  had  evidently  been  used  as  a  scraper.  From 
Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 


66 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Description  of  Plate  17. 

Fig.  I  (804).  Sinker  ( kayu'xtax ')  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff  for  a  fish-hook  for  cod  and  halibut.  From  Atxa'lax', 
Atka  Island. 

Fig.  2  (1665).  Head-piece  of  a  quartzite  drill  (hardness  1,  No.  4).  Head-piece  of  a  drill  is  called  qitqu'yax ',  on 
Umnak ;  kixtu'gyax',  on  Unalaska ;  and  umu'six ',  on  Attu.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  3  (1628).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  tachylitic  tuff  (basaltic,  glassy)  with  a  perforation  made  by  drilling.  From 
Pit  1,  Agla'gax'  site,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  4  (2005).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  altered  andesitic  lava,  with  a  drilled  hole  for  fastening  to  the  line.  Found 
at  a  depth  of  2.6  meters,  at  Xata'ctan,  Amaknak  Island. 

Fig.  5  (1463).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  micro-granular  quartz  diorite  with  an  unfinished  groove.  From  Uglu'dax', 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  6  (1910).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  diabase  porphyrite,  much  weathered.  From  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  7  (1235).  Small  grooved  ball,  part  of  a  bird  bolas,  made  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff.  The  implement,  which 
consists  of  several  balls  to  which  thongs  are  attached,  is  called  sanaga'sin,  and  each  ball  is  called 
kayu'xtax' ,  the  name  for  a  fish-hook  sinker.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  8  (1464).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  altered  andesitic  tuff.  It  was  also  used  as  a  hammer  (itmagu'  six')  for  rude 
chipping  or  flaking  of  stone  implements.  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  9  (2006).  Implement  for  grinding  paints,  made  of  enstatite-augite  andesite  (hardness  2,  No.  14).  Xata'cxan, 
Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  10  (1450).  Small  fish-hook  sinker  of  tuff  of  tachylite,  used  for  catching  Cottus  aleuticus  Gilb.  From  Ukix, 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  11  (2142).  Whetstone  (cumli! six')  for  polishing  stone  implements  of  tuff  of  tachylite  (hardness  4,  No.  23). 
From  Tanaxta'xax',  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  12  (2079).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  augite  andesite.  Found  at  a  depth  of  4.6  meters  at  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax 
Island. 

Fig.  13  (407).  Hammer  ( tuga!six ')  used  in  the  manufacture  of  stone  lamps  and  for  grooving  stone  sinkers.  It  is 
made  of  micro-granular  quartz  diorite  (hardness  2,  No.  12).  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  14  (196).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  altered  tuff  of  andesite.  From  Sin,  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  15  (2128).  Small  fish-hook  sinker,  used  also  as  a  polishing  implement,  made  of  andesitic  lava.  From  Tanax¬ 
ta'xax',  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  16  (365).  Piece  of  vesicular  andesitic  lava,  used  as  a  polishing-implement  ( ska’gix ')  for  bone,  wood,  and 
stone.  An  implement  of  microgranular  andesitic  lava  was  called  cuktu'six'.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu 
Island. 

Fig.  17  (270).  Stone  drill-head  of  quartz  limestone  (hard  marble),  used  in  making  fire.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu 
Island. 

Fig.  18  (504).  Piece  of  red  ocher  used  for  paint.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  19  (895).  Paint  grinder  ( ikica'six ')  of  augite  andesite.  From  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  20  (1405).  Ball  of  tachylite  tuff  which  had  evidently  belonged  to  a  bird  bolas,  although  it  appears  too  large 
for  that  purpose.  It  had  served  also  as  a  hammer  for  rude  chipping  of  stone  lamps  and  fish-hook 
sinkers.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  21  (297).  Small  flat  fish-hook  sinker  of  hornstone  schist.  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  22  (1908).  Paint  grinding  stone,  called  ikica'six,  meaning  “implement  for  grinding,”  or  hinkulu'gim-ca, 
i.  e.,  the  arm  of  hinkulu'gix',  or  an  anvil-stone,  on  which  the  paint  is  ground.  It  is  of  enstatite  augite 
andesite.  From  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  23  (2008).  Hammer  for  chipping  lamps  and  grooving  fish-hook  sinkers,  made  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff. 
From  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  24  (1454).  Hammer  for  chipping  stone  implements,  semiopal  (hardness  1,  No.  6).  It  had  served  also  as  a 
paint-grinder  (ikica'six') .  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  25  (355).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  26  (1629).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff  with  three  perforations  made  by  drilling.  From 
Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  27  (1636^).  Round  stone  of  tachylite  tuff  used  in  the  game  called  a'gix'.  The  game  consists  in  throwing 
three  or  four  stones  up,  one  after  another,  with  one  hand,  and  catching  them  in  the  same  hand. 
From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  28  (1451).  Fish-hook  sinker  of  altered  andesitic  tuff  for  catching  Cottus  aleuticus  Gilb.  From  Ukix,  Umnak 
Island. 

Fig.  29  (1636a).  Round  quartz  pebble  used  in  playing  a'gix '  (see  No.  27).  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  17 


Hammers,  sinkers,  paint  grinders,  and  other  implements  of  stone.  About  two-fifths  natural  size. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitclien  Middens. 


67 


Text-fig.  3 6A-C  (961).  Stone  disk  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff  (hardness  3,  No.  20)  with  a  central  perforation. 

The  disk  appears  to  be  too  light  for  a  fish-line  sinker  and  is  too  large  for  the  ring  used  in  tighten¬ 
ing  the  belt  of  the  waterproof  shirt  made  of  sea-mammal  guts.  A  shows  the  convex  side  and  B 
the  flat  side  of  the  disk.  C  is  a  transverse  section  through  the  middle  of  the  perforation.  On  the 
flat  side  ( B )  may  be  seen  evidence  of  drilling,  while  on  the  convex  side  (A)  the  perforation  had 
been  enlarged  by  flaking  with  a  chisel.  The  most  likely  use  of  this  disk  was  as  an  ornamental 
pendant.  Found  in  Pit  1,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Text-fig.  37A  to  D  ( A ,  886;  B,  1495;  C,  2102;  D,  1154).  Drill-points;  C  is  of  hornstone  schist,  the  remainder 
are  of  andesite.  These  drills  had  had  wooden  handles  and  were  operated  by  means  of  small  bows. 
A,  from  Hala'ca,  Atka  Island;  B,  from  Uglu'dax',  Umnak;  C,  Tanaxtaxax,  Amaknax  Island;  D, 
Pit  I,  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Text-fig.  38  (1048).  Slate  whetstone  for  grinding  and  polishing  bone  needles  and  awls.  Traces  of  grinding 
may  be  seen  in  the  deep  grooves  of  the  soft  stone.  Found  at  a  depth  of  5.2  meters,  in  Pit  2, 
Aglagax,  Umnak  Island. 


Processes  in  Working  Stone  Implements. 

Of  stone  objects  found  in  the  course  of  excavations  on  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
it  remains  but  to  describe  stone  lamps,  stone  ornaments,  and  a  few  household  objects 
of  stone.  However,  before  entering  into  a  description  of  the  implements  them¬ 
selves,  it  may  be  well  to  describe  their  method  of  manufacture.  The  following  data 
are  based  not  only  on  the  implements  themselves,  but  on  statements  of  old  Aleut, 
particularly  those  on  Umnak  Island,  who  seemed  to  know  more  about  the  primitive 
techniques  of  their  forefathers  than  any  of  the  other  islanders.  Some  stone  imple¬ 
ments,  such  as  fish-hook  sinkers  and  stone  blades  for  throwing-lances  used  in  hunt¬ 
ing,  were  still  in  use.  Because  of  this  it  was  possible  to  establish  the  use  of  all  the 
objects  of  the  lithic  industry  of  the  old  Aleut. 

The  following  processes  were  employed  in  working  stone  implements : 

1.  Breaking  off  fragments,  of  which  the  implements  were  made  from  the  core  or  boulder. 

2.  Rude  chipping  of  the  flakes  to  give  them  the  desired  shape,  either  of  a  point,  blade,  knife,  or  dagger 

3.  Fine  chipping  of  the  sides  of  the  flakes. 

4.  Trimming  the  edges.  This  process  is  called  “  retoucher  ”  by  the  French  archaeologists. 

5.  Polishing  the  blade  or  the  whole  implement. 


68 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Hammer-stones. 

Two  kinds  of  hammer-stones,  consisting  "Of  boulders  picked  up  on  the  seashore 
or  taken  from  the  rock,  are  distinguished  by  the  Aleut.  One,  called  tug  a!  six ' ,  mean¬ 
ing  “  implement  for  striking,”  was  an  oblong  rounded  boulder  found  on  the  shore. 
The  tugasix '  was  used  for  processes  i  and  2.  There  were  tug  a!  six''  of  differing 
hardness,  used  in  accordance  with  the  hardness  of  the  material  to  be  beaten.  It  was 
used  for  the  grooving  of  fish-hook  sinkers  and  for  the  rude  pecking  out  of  stone 
lamps.  As  lamps  and  sinkers  were  made  of  stone  of  medium  hardness,  so  the 
hammer-stone  was  not  of  the  hardest  minerals,  as  shown  in  plate  17,  figures  13 
and  23. 


Fig.  38.— Whetstone  for  grinding  and  polishing  bone  implements. 

Fig.  39. — Hammerstone  for  working  stone  implements;  A,  side  view;  B,  transverse 
Fig.  40. — A  core. 


The  second  type  of  hammer-stone  was  called  itmagu'six,  i.  e.,  implement  for 
pecking,  or  delicate  hitting,  and  was  manufactured  of  the  hardest  minerals.  It  was 
egg-shaped,  round,  or  discoidal  in  form,  and  served  for  the  final  chipping  of  stone 
implements  and  for  hollowing  out  stone  lamps.  To  use  the  hammer-stone,  tug  a  six', 
it  was  held  in  the  right  hand  at  one  end,  while  the  other  was  used  to  give  a  vertical 
stroke  from  above.  The  stone  being  worked  lay  on  the  edge  of  another  flat  stone 
or  a  piece  of  whale-bone.  A  long  hammer  augmented  the  power  of  the  stroke. 

The  short  hammer-stone,  itmagu'six',  was  held  in  the  right  hand;  in  working 
with  this  implement,  skill  in  handling  it  was  more  important  than  a  powerful  stroke. 
The  stone  to  be  shaped  was  held  in  the  left  hand  and  by  cautiously  striking  and 
chipping  with  the  itmagu'six' ,  the  irregularities  of  the  edges  and  the  borders  of  con- 
choidal  cleavages  were  removed.  Thus  the  edges  were  made  thin  and  the  protuber¬ 
ances  from  the  sides  were  removed  before  the  implement  was  trimmed  and  polished. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


69 


Text-figure  39,  A,  B  (1452)  illustrates  a  hammer  stone  ( itmagu'  six' )  in  natural 
size,  with  fine  scarring  on  3  sides — the  marks  of  use.  It  is  a  water-worn  boulder  of 
green  hornstone  schist,  with  thinnest  veins  of  quartz,  hardness  1  of  our  scale.  The 
back  of  the  hammer-stone,  which,  when  in  use,  is  covered  by  the  palm,  has  no  scars ; 
every  other  part  of  the  implement  was  used.  This  specimen  was  found  at  Ukix, 
Umnak  Island;  A ,  is  a  view  from  the  side;  B,  is  a  lateral  section.  Such  an  implement 
is  also  shown  on  plate  17,  figure  24,  and  the  collection  contained  many  more  of  the 
same  type. 

It  should  be  noted  that  our  conclusions  as  to  the  shape  of  this  hammer-stone 
does  not  agree  with  those  arrived  at  by  Professor  W.  A.  Gorodtzov,  of  Moscow, 
who  has  made  many  experiments  in  the  manufacture  of  stone  implements.  He 
states  that  all  types  of  Stone  Age  hammer-stone  must  have  been  oblong  in  form.15 
Illustrations  in  well-known  works  on  American  archaeology,  such  as  those  of 
Professor  Holmes,  show  hammer-stones  of  the  type  of  the  itmagusix' ;  in  other 
words,  an  egg  or  ball-shaped  form.10  Such  illustrations  as  are  shown  by  Dr.  Thomas 
Wilson  17  are  to  be  found  in  all  hand-books  on  prehistoric  archaeology.18 

In  figure  40  (895)  may  be  seen  a  core  of  andesite  from  which  flakes  had  evi¬ 
dently  been  obtained  by  striking  with  a  hammer-stone  of  the  itmagu'  six'  type  verti¬ 
cally  from  above.  In  the  lower  part  are  also  marks  of  side-strokes  apparently  made 
to  obtain  a  point.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Aleut,  this  was  a  point  for  a  throwing-lance 
in  the  early  stages  of  its  shaping. 


Retouching  Stone  Implements. 

The  final  shape  to  a  stone  implement  was  given  it  by  trimming  or  retouching 
after  the  form  had  been  thinned  out  with  the  itmagu' 'six'  hammer-stone.  As  an  im¬ 
plement  for  trimming  the  edges,  a  bone  chipper  or  flaker  ( ca'iux ')  was  employed. 
Some  European  archaeologists  are  of  the  opinion  that  Stone  Age  man  of  the  Old 
World,  that  is,  man  of  the  palaeolithic  period,  before  bone  implements  were  used, 
employed  stone  flakers  for  retouching  his  implements.10  In  France  they  were  called 
ecrosoirs ,  but  M.  de  Mortillet  prefers  the  name  retouchoir.  Sir  John  Evans  calls 
stone  flakers  also  fabricators .20  Judging  by  the  implements  found  on  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  and,  according  to  the  statements  of  the  present  Aleut,  the  forefathers  of 


15  W.  A.  Gorodtzov,  On  the  Technics  of  Stone  Implements  (in  Russian).  Yearbook  for  Geology  and 
Mineralogy  of  Russia,  vol.  XVI,  part  i,  1914,  p.  18-20. 

16  W.  H.  Holmes,  Stone  Implements  (Fifteenth  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Wash¬ 
ington,  1897,  p.  59)  ;  Handbook  of  Aboriginal  American  Antiquities ,  Part  I,  Introductory,  The  Lithic  Industries, 
Bull.  60,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washington,  1919,  pp.  180,  2214  331. 

17  Thomas  Wilson,  Arrow-points,  Spear-heads,  and  Knives  of  Prehistoric  Times  (Report  National  Museum, 
Part  1,  1899,  p.  880). 

18  J.  Dechelette,  Manuel  d’Archeologie  prehistorique,  Paris,  1908,  p.  21.  British  Museum.  A  guide  to  the 
Antiquities  of  the  Stone  Age,  London,  1911,  p.  57,  fig.  76. 

19  J.  Dechelette,  1.  c.,  I,  pp.  331,  538;  Mortillet,  L’homme  prehistorique,  p.  517;  British  Museum,  A  Guide, 
etc.,  p.  137- 

20  John  Evans,  Ancient  Stone  Implements,  p.  367. 


70 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


the  latter  used  only  bone-flakers  for  chipping  the  edges  smooth.  Leading  American 
archaeologists  also  believe  bone  to  have  been  the  retouching  material.21 


.1  IS 


Fig.  42. — Piece  of  sea-lion  skin. 


'41 A  V- 41  B  41 C 

Fig.  41. — Bone  flakers. 


43 


Fig.  43. — Bone  flaker  with  handle. 

The  bone-flaker,  ca'tux \  was  usually  made  of  the  penis-bone  of  a  sea-otter 
(cna' tum-urini' ,  see  plate  22,  figs.  15,  16).  It  is  a  very  dense  and  hard  bone  sub¬ 
stance,  but,  in  distinction  from  stone,  possesses  a  certain  degree  of  elasticity,  so  that 
with  its  somewhat  curved  form,  the  sea-otter’s  penis-bone  was  the  best  material 
for  a  bone  flaker.  These  bone  flakers  usually  had  a  thin,  rounded,  somewhat  bent 

21 W.  H.  Holmes,  Handbook  of  Aboriginal  American  Antiquities,  part  i,  pp.  305-308;  Thomas  Wilson, 
Arrow-points,  etc.,  pp.  881,  882. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


71 


and  polished  point.  When  the  point  broke  off  or  split  in  retouching  the  sharp  edges 
of  stone  implements,  the  flaker  was  ground  down  on  a  whetstone. 

According  to  an  old  Aleut  saying,  a  lad  had  no  right  to  marry  before  he  had 
ground  off  a  penis-bone  flaker  to  its  base  in  the  manufacture  of  stone  implements. 
This  proverb  does  not  imply  that  all  other  kinds  of  dense  and  hard  bone  were 
excluded  as  material  for  making  flakers.  They  were  also  made  of  the  outer  layer 
of  a  walrus-tooth  and  of  the  incisors  of  the  killer  whale. 

The  edges  of  stone  implements  were  retouched  with  bone  flakers,  giving  them 
an  even  or  serrated  form.  In  the  first  case,  the  weapon  inflicted  a  cutting  wound; 
in  the  second,  a  laceration.  A  serrated  blade  served  also  as  a  saw  for  filing  bone  and 
wood.  With  the  bone  flaker  the  stem,  notches,  barbs,  and  spurs  of  stone  blades  and 
points  were  chipped  out. 


Fig.  44. — Process  of  retouching  stone 
implements. 


Three  bone  flakers  are  shown  in  figure  41,  A  to  C.  Figure  41^  (1097)  is  of 
walrus-tusk  and  was  found  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island ;  B  was  found  at  Ukix 
on  the  same  island;  while  C  was  found  at  Nani'kax',  on  Attu.  In  the  Attu  dialect  a 
bone  flaker  is  called  catu'six \ 

For  retouching  large  stone  blades  or  knives,  the  bone  flakers  were  fitted  with 
a  wooden  handle  called  u'tux\  This  type  of  flaker  is  shown  in  text- figure  43  (1742). 
It  is  a  model  made  on  Umnak  Island  by  the  old  Aleut,  Boris  Besyasykov.  The  bone 
is  that  of  a  killer’s  tooth.  The  wooden  handle  is  fastened  to  the  flaker  by  sinew 
threads  and  represents  a  sea-lion.  To  retouch  a  stone  implement  it  was  held  in  the 
left  hand  on  a  piece  of  thick  sea-lion  skin,  while  the  flaker  was  manipulated  with  the 
right  hand.  In  figure  42  is  shown  a  piece  of  thick  sea-lion  skin,  with  an  incision 
for  the  thumb.  This  covered  the  palm  of  the  left  hand  during  the  retouching  process, 
which  may  be  seen  in  figure  44.  The  small,  sharp  splinters  fall  on  the  thick  sea-lion 


6 


72 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


skin  and  not  on  the  hand.  Besides,  the  sea-lion  skin  prevented  pressure  on  the  hand 
with  the  flaker  while  chipping. 

Many  of  the  stone  implements  illustrated  were  retouched  by  the  flaker,  but  not 
polished;  the  retouching  was  the  final  process;  then  the  implement  was  ready  for 
use.  According  to  European  archaeologists,  the  retouching  process  was  already 
known  to  man  of  the  later  palaeolithic  period.  However,  in  the  neolithic  age,  the 
implement  which  had  to  be  polished  must  have  been  retouched  by  a  flaker  before 
the  grinding  and  polishing. 

Polishing  Stone  Implements. 

Grinding  and  polishing  of  stone  implements  were  known  to  the  ancient  Aleut, 
but  very  few  of  the  implements  found  appear  to  have  been  polished.  For  the  most 
part,  the  stone  implements  shown  on  plates  15  to  17  were  only  retouched. 

As  has  been  mentioned  before,  two  kinds  of  polishing  implements,  made  of 
andesitic  lava,  of  fine  and  rude  vesicularity,  are  shown  on  plates  16  (figs.  23  and  25) 
and  17  (fig.  16).  The  polishing  implement  of  coarse  vesicular  andesitic  lava,  called 
by  the  Aleut  sna'gix '  or  ska'gix',  was  used  in  the  first  phase  of  the  process.  For  the 
second  step,  after  the  coarse  unevenness  of  the  stone  was  removed  by  the  sna'gix \ 
an  implement  of  fine  vesicular  andesitic  lava,  called  by  the  Aleut  cnktu'six',  was 
used.  The  third  stage  consisted  in  grinding  with  a  smooth  whetstone,  called  cnmli'- 
six\  chiefly  made  of  volcanic  tuff  (see  plate  17,  fig.  11).  With  this  implement  the 
edges  were  also  sharpened.  In  order  to  polish  the  surface  the  Aleut  used  the  horse¬ 
tail,  Equisetum  nyemale,  which  they  called  qi'lim  alucaya'nin,  i.  e.,  the  needles  of  the 
mythical  monster,  Qi'lix\  Chiefly,  however,  bone  objects  received  their  final  polish 
with  this  plant. 

Judging  from  the  excavated  implements,  only  stone  adzes  and  axes  of  quartz 
and  hornstone  schist  and  large  flat  knives  (man’s  knife,  utu'gnux '  and  woman’s 
iga'dax ')  were  polished.  On  adzes,  chiefly  the  edges  and  the  places  over  the  edges 


Description  of  Plate  18. 

Fig.  1  (1652).  Lamp  of  altered  diabase  porphyrite  (hardness  3,  No.  18).  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  2  (2119).  Lamp  of  andesitic  lava  (hardness  3,  No.  17),  found  at  a  depth  of  2.8  meters.  Tanaxta'xax', 
Am'aknax'  Island. 

Fig.  3  (1641).  Lamp  of  diorite  (hardness  2,  No.  12).  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  4  (1648).  Lamp  of  serpentine  of  an  antigorite  type  (hardness  4,  No.  26).  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  5  (1657).  Lamp  of  serpentine  of  an  antigorite  type.  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  6  (1650).  Lamp  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff  (hardness  4,  No.  20).  Ukix,  Urpnak  Island. 

Fig.  7  (899).  Lamp  of  serpentine  of  an  antigorite  type  (hardness  4,  No.  26),  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  8  (1906).  Lamp  of  diorite  (hardness  2,  No.  12).  Am'aknax',  Am'aknax'  Island. 

Fig.  9  (1646).  Lamp  of  serpentine  of  antigorite  type.  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  10  (1658).  Lamp  of  serpentine  of  an  antigorite  type.  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  11  (1694).  Lamp  of  diorite.  Found  by  the  Aleut  while  digging  a  garden  on  site  of  a  small  ancient  village. 

Cuni'xsux',  which  is  about  3  miles  north  of  present  village  of  Nikolskoye,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  12  (217).  Lamp  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff  (hardness  3,  No.  20).  Sin,  Attu  Island;  outside  is  painted  black. 
Fig.  13  (130).  Lamp  of  antegoritic  serpentine.  Hog  Island. 

Fig.  14  (1695).  Lamp  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff,  made  on  Atka  Island,  after  the  advent  of  the  Russians. 

Fig.  15  (1671).  Lamp  of  antegoritic  serpentine.  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  16  (1651).  Lamp  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff.  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  18 


Stone  lamps.  About  two-sevenths  natural  size. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


73 


were  polished,  but  seldom  the  entire  implement.  On  flat  knives,  both  men’s  and 
women’s,  of  slate  and  hornstone  schist,  the  whole  surface  on  both  sides  was  usually 
polished,  but  not  quite  smoothly.  Of  long  knives,  called  cunu' six' ,  there  appeared 
2  polished  (see  plate  16,  figs,  io  and  n).  Adzes  for  working  in  wood  seem  not  to 
be  polished  (see  plate  15,  figs.  35  and  34).  As  will  be  seen  later,  some  of  the  lamps 
had  the  sides  and  lower  surface  polished. 

STONE  AND  BONE  LAMPS. 

Peculiarities  of  Aleut  Stone  and  Bone  Lamps. 

Aleut  stone  lamps  were  used  for  the  light  and  warmth  they  afforded.  There 
were  two  types,  distinguished* by  their  size,  names,  and  use:  illuminating  lamps 
were  of  small  size  and  were  called  i'xtax while  those  used  for  warmth  were  larger 
and  were  called,  a'nux\ 

The  wick,  called  ie'nix '  or  hi'nix\  for  both  types  of  lamp,  consisted  of  a  bunch 
of  dry  grass  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  lamp,  which  was  filled  with  tallow,  melted 
fat,  or  oil  obtained  from  sea  animals.  The  lamp  usually  stood  on  a  piece  of  sea-lion 
skin,  from  which  drops  of  oil  or  fat,  which  occasionally  fell  from  the  lamp,  were 
gathered.  During  a  scarcity  of  fat,  the  wick  was  made  thin  and  placed  slantwise 
near  the  edge  of  the  lamp.  No  special  grooves  or  bridges  were  carved  for  wicks. 
The  illuminating  lamp  served  also  to  warm  the  dwelling,  but  this  was  an  additional 
use  of  the  lamp.  Generally,  no  attempt  was  made  to  warm  the  dwellings.  No  fire¬ 
places  were  built,  neither  did  the  Aleut  cook  over  their  lamps  as  do  the  Eskimo. 
For  example,  the  southern  Eskimo  hang  soapstone  kettles  over  their  lamps  and  in 
these  food  is  cooked  or  snow  melted.  When  the  Aleut  made  a  driftwood  fire  it  was 
usually  in  the  open  air  or  in  special  semiunderground  kitchen  huts.  There  they 
fried  meat  of  sea  animals,  birds,  and  fishes  on  flat  stone  frying-pans  called  cu'nlux \ 
Many  such  stone  frying-pans  were  found  on  all  the  islands.  One  is  shown  in  plate  21, 
Fig.  2  (1697),  from  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island.  It  is  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff  black¬ 
ened  by  smoke  on  the  lower  side  and  with  grease  on  the  upper.  In  use,  the  edges  of  the 
frying-pan  were  supported  by  stones,  so  wood  could  be  burned  under  it. 

The  lamp  called  a'nux '  was  used,  chiefly  by  hunters,  for  warmth.  Women,  too, 
warmed  themselves  over  it,  after  working  in  the  fields,  gathering  berries,  grasses,  or 
edible  roots,  or  after  searching  on  shore  for  echini,  mollusks,  or  edible  sea-weeds. 

A'nux '  means  “  warmer,”  also  the  process  of  warming;  the  verbal  form  is  a'nu , 
to  warm  oneself  over  a  lamp.  The  use  of  the  “  warmer  ”  was  as  follows :  People 
stood  over  the  burning  lamp  or  sat  over  it  in  a  squatting  position,  covering  it  with 
their  shirt-like  coats.  The  ancient  Aleut  wore  footwear  only  or  a  breechcloth  and 
footwear  under  their  coats,  so  the  naked  body  could  easily  be  warmed.  Before  get¬ 
ting  in  skin-boats  the  Aleut  took  off  their  footwear.  Sick  people  were  also  seated 
over  the  a'nux '  to  make  them  perspire.  Generally,  the  warming-lamp  served  in  place 
of  the  sweat-bath,  which  was  unknown  to  the  Aleut  before  the  coming  of  the  Rus¬ 
sians.  As  was  in  later  days  the  case  with  the  sweat-bath,  visitors  were  always  offered 
the  use  of  a  warming-lamp. 


74 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Of  the  lamps  shown  in  plates  18  to  20,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  a'nux ' 
from  the  i'xtax\  However,  the  size  was  generally  an  indication  of  their  use.  Thus, 
according  to  information  obtained  from  the  Aleut,  the  following  large  lamps  were 
regarded  as  “  warmers  Figures  1  and  3,  plate  18;  figures  1  and  2,  plate  19,  and 
figures  3  and  9,  plate  20.  The  Attu  chief,  Prokopyev,  who  gave  us  information  about 
the  exceedingly  large  stone  lamp,  referred  to  a  legend  about  a  former  chief  of  the 
southern  part  of  the  island  who  ordered  his  slaves  to  make  the  lamp  for  his  daughter. 

Without  doubt,  however,  large  lamps  were  used  for  lighting  and  the  smaller 
ones  for  warmth.  Thus,  for  example,  the  old  Aleut  say  that  during  social  festivities 
and  plays  the  ulaga'max\  i.  e.,  the  large  underground  dwelling  of  the  chief,  was 
lighted  by  large  stone  lamps  usually  used  for  warming.  In  such  case  several  wicks 
were  placed  in  the  lamp  for  better  lighting.  On  the  other  hand,  hunters  took  with 
them,  in  their  skin  boats,  small  stone  lamps,  i'xtax\  or  carried  them  attached  to  their 
belts  by  means  of  a  perforation.  These  served  to  light  the  caves  or  temporary  tents 
in  which  the  hunters  lived,  but  more  important  still,  these  were  carried  by  the 
hunters  so  that  when  overtaken  by  cold  and  humidity  they  might  be  able  to  warm 
and  dry  themselves.  A  lamp  with  an  ear  or  handle  by  which  it  may  be  attached  to 
the  hunter’s  belt  is  represented  on  plate  18,  figure  5. 

Aside  from  the  lamp,  the  hunter  had  to  be  supplied  with  fire-making  imple¬ 
ments,  a  drill,  bow,  head  for  the  drill,  dry  grass  or  wood,  pieces  of  sulphur,  and  a 
bladder  filled  with  oil.  The  lamp  fuel  could  also  be  augmented  by  pieces  of  fat  from 
the  sea  mammals  killed. 

Judging  by  the  specimens  excavated,  which  numbered  69,  the  Aleut  stone  lamps 
are  distinguished  by  a  considerable  diversity  of  types  as  to  their  size  as  well  as  their 
form.  The  length  of  lamps  shown  on  the  plates  ranges  between  45  mm.  and  310  mm. 
There  were  also  lamps  less  than  45  mm.  long,  but  these  were  probably  toy  or  mor¬ 
tuary  lamps.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  also  lamps  longer  than  310  mm.  A  lamp 
1  meter  long  has  already  been  mentioned. 

For  the  plates  different  types  of  lamps  were  chosen.  Those  circular  in  outline 
are  figures  5,  8,  and  16  on  plate  18,  and  figures  3,  5,  and  8  on  plate  20.  In  figures  2, 
3,  6  and  15  on  plate  18,  and  figures  1  and  2  on  plate  19,  are  shown  lamps  of  elliptical 
shape.  Oval  or  egg-like  shapes  may  be  seen  in  figures  7  and  11  on  plate  18,  sad  iron 
in  outline  are  figures  1,  12,  13,  and  14  on  plate  18,  while  rectangular  or  nearly 


Description  of  Plate  19. 

Fig.  1  (409).  Diorite  lamp,  found  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island,  the  largest  in  the  collection.  Length  310  mm.,  width 

220  mm.,  height  180  mm.  It  weighed  about  40  pounds.  We  were  told  by  the  chief  of  Attu, 

Prokopyev,  that  on  the  southern  part  of  the  island  there  has  been  preserved  a  stone  lamp  3  times 
as  large  as  this.  It  may  be  added  also  that  the  author  has  examined  a  diorite  lamp  from  Kodiak 
Island  now  in  the  U.  S.  National  Museum  (90476)  which  weighed  67!  pounds. 

Fig.  2  (787) .  Large  stone  lamp  of  diabase  porphyrite,  from  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  3  (1857).  Bowl  made  of  a  whale’s  vertebra,  for  keeping  edible  roots,  Fritillaria  kamtschatica  Ker  Gawl 
(Aleut,  alu'gax ')  and  Polygonum  viviparum  L.  (Aleut,  qugcu'dax '  and  ka' gucudax '),  found  at 
Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  4  (801,  901,  677).  Stone  (801),  augite  andesite,  on  which  paints  were  ground  called  hinku'lux '  by  the  Aleut. 

Found  in  Cave  2,  Atx'alax',  Atka  Island.  Stone  pestle  (901)  for  grinding  paints  ( hinkulugim  ca', 

i.  e.,  the  hand  of  hinku'lux '  or  ikica'six i.  e.,  the  grinder).  It  could  also  be  used  for  polishing  the 
edges  of  stone  implements.  It  was  made  of  andesitic  tuff.  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atx'alax',  Atka  Island. 
A  piece  of  red  ocher  (677)  found  in  the  same  cave. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  19 


« 


|L-  Lis  •  -••••- 

* 

%.*l 


'  :  > 

fcf  .  -i-~  »w'ifa»v0<w  . . . . 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


75 


rectangular  forms  are  illustrated  in  figures  4,  9,  and  10  on  plate  18.  No  lamps  of 
crescentic  outline,  like  those  of  the  Eskimo  of  Cumberland  Gulf  or  Point  Barrow, 
were  excavated. 

Most  of  the  lamps  are  flat-bottomed,  so  they  stand  without  support;  however, 
some  of  them  have  rounded  bottoms,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  large  lamps  of  elliptic 
shape  shown  in  figures  1  and  2  on  plate  19  and  some  of  those  circular  in  outline. 

The  cavity  for  oil  in  some  lamps  (as,  for  instance,  in  figs.  1,  4,  5,  9,  10,  and  14, 
plate  18)  represents  a  flat  bottom  with  straight  sides,  while  in  other  lamps  the 
bottom  is  rounded.  In  both  cases  the  oil  cavity  is  quite  shallow,  from  10  to  25  mm., 
and  in  most  cases  the  cavity,  sides,  and  base  are  smoothly  polished. 

In  the  manufacture  of  stone  lamps  the  processes  employed  in  stone  working 
heretofore  described  were  employed.  First,  a  stone  was  chosen  and  the  cavity  was 
rudely  pecked  out  with  a  hammer-stone  (tuga'sir) .  In  plate  21,  figure  1,  may  be 
seen  a  stone  in  this  stage  of  manufacture.  In  the  same  way,  the  sides  and  base  of 
the  lamp  were  rudely  shaped  by  fracture.  In  case  the  lamp  material  was  a  water- 
worn  boulder,  the  entire  process  was  thereby  facilitated.  Generally,  the  gross  out¬ 
lines  of  the  lamp  depended  on  the  original  form  of  the  material. 

The  second  stage  of  shaping  a  lamp  consisted  in  the  finer  chipping  of  the  cavity, 
sides,  and  bottom  by  means  of  the  stone  hammer  (itmagu' six') .  Then  followed  the 
polishing  by  the  methods  described  before.  The  straight  rims  of  some  of  the  lamps 
were  chiseled  out  with  hard  quartz  or  hornstone-schist  chisels. 

Doctor  Walter  Hough,22  curator  of  the  Ethnology  Division  of  the  U.  S. 
National  Museum,  attempted  to  classify  Eskimo  lamps  with  reference  to  their  types, 
based  on  the  specimens  deposited  in  the  National  Museum.  However,  his  conclu¬ 
sions,  though  based  on  a  considerable  amount  of  material,  do  not  agree  with  those 
of  the  present  author.  For  example,  Doctor  Hough  states  that  the  northern  Eskimo 
use  larger  lamps  than  do  the  southern  Eskimo.  We  have  shown  that  the  Aleut  used 
both  very  small  and  very  large  lamps. 

According  to  Doctor  Hough,  the  most  widespread  type  of  lamp  was  of  clam¬ 
shell  shape.  This  type,  in  a  wider  or  narrower  form,  is  distributed  from  Labrador 
to  Alaska  and  Eastern  Siberia.  Often  it  has  a  bridge  spanning  the  concavity,  thus 
separating  the  wick  from  the  oil  reservoir.  The  oil  flows  to  the  wick  through  cuts 
in  the  sides  of  the  bridge  or  through  its  middle.  Bridged  lamps  were  found  in  locali¬ 
ties  at  great  distances  from  each  other — in  northern  Greenland,  on  the  Mackenzie 
River,  on  St.  Lawrence  Island,  at  Point  Barrow,  and  on  the  Chukchee  Peninsula. 
According  to  Doctor  Hough,  circular  lamps  were  found  in  Bristol  Bay,  while  the 
lamps  of  the  Kodiak  and  Aleut  were  ovate. 

His  description  of  Aleut  lamps  is  based  on  those  brought  from  the  island  by 
Doctor  Dali.  However,  these  lamps,  in  their  size,  form,  and  rude  appearance, 
represent  too  uniform  material.  Most  of  them  are  roughly  worked  out  boulders, 
or  sometimes  boulders  with  a  natural  cavity  not  even  worked.  Probably  these  were 


22  Walter  Hough,  The  Lamp  of  the  Eskimo  (Annual  Report  U.  S.  National  Museum  for  the  year  1897, 
Washington,  1898,  pp.  1027-1057). 


76 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


merely  the  carelessly  worked  lamps  which  hunters  carried  with  them.  However, 
lamps  for  lighting  dwellings  were  made  more  carefully. 

The  late  Prince  Ookhtomsky,  a  Russian  ethnologist,  tried  to  revise  this  division 
of  the  Eskimo  lamps  by  Doctor  Hough,  and  for  comparative  purposes  included  also 
Chukchee,  Koryak,  and  Kamchadal  lamps.23  He  divides  the  lamps  of  the  Arctic 
regions  into  three  types.  Two  of  the  types  segregated  by  Prince  Ookhtomsky  are: 
lamps  semilunar  in  outline  and  with'  bridges,  coincide  with  types  of  lamps  which 
Doctor  Hough  finds  similar  in  form  to  a  clam-shell.  In  the  third,  most  primitive 
type,  Ookhtomsky  includes  the  lamps  of  the  southwestern  Eskimo,  the  Aleut,  Koryak, 
and  Kamchadal.  But  this  study  of  lamps  is  based  on  unsufficient  material;  we  have 
seen  that,  for  the  most  part,  Aleut  lamps  are  far  from  being  primitive;  they  are 
carefully  worked  and  even  polished.  Neither  can  the  Koryak  or  Kamchadal  lamps 
be  considered  primitive.  It  is  hoped  that  we  may  be  able  to  discuss  this  question 
when  the  material  excavated  in  Kamchatka  is  published. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  Aleut  lamps  may  be  compared  in  shape  with 
the  lamps  of  the  southwestern  Eskimo.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  ovate  lamps  of  the 
Kodiak,  the  circular  lamps  of  Bristol  Bay,  and  the  sad-iron-shaped  lamps  of  Norton 
Sound  are  similar  in  outline  to  many  of  the  Aleut  lamps.  The  Aleut  lamps  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  above,  not  only  by  the  absence  of  the  bridge,  but  also  by  the 
position  of  the  dry-grass  wick  in  the  middle  of  the  lamp  cavity.  In  none  of  the  Aleut 
lamps  was  there  a  cut  or  groove  for  the  wick,  such  as  is  found  in  the  Kodiak  lamps. 
Only  the  pointed  border  of  the  sad-iron-shaped  lamps  would  serve  as  a  leaning  place 
for  the  wick,  but  the  old  Aleut  asserted  that  the  wick  was  placed  in  the  center  in  all 
lamps.  The  considerable  number  of  bone  lamps  found  in  the  course  of  the  excava¬ 
tions  corroborates  the  statements  of  the  Aleut  that  the  wick  was  in  the  center  of  the 
cavity;  otherwise  the  borders  of  the  bone  lamps  would  have  been  burned  off  by  the 
flame  of  the  wick. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  BONE  IMPLEMENTS. 

The  preceding  divisions  of  this  chapter  were  devoted  to  a  general  description  of 
the  construction  of  the  most  typical  weapons  for  war  and  hunting  implements.  It  is 


Description  of  Plate  20. 

Fig.  1  (414).  Bone  lamp  made  of  a  vertebra  of  a  small  whale.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  2  (1794).  Bone  lamp  similar  to  preceding.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  3  (216).  Porphylite  lamp.  From  Sin,  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  4  (411).  Porphylite  lamp.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  5  (415).  Bone  lamp,  found  in  the  lowest  layer  of  kitchen  refuse  amid  a  heap  of  echini  (see  above,  p.  26)  in 
Pit  4,  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  6  (1795).  Bowl  made  of  a  whale’s  vertebra.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  7  (363).  Lamp  of  whale’s  vertebra,  found  in  the  uppermost  layer  of  kitchen  refuse,  Pit  4  Nani'kax'  Attu 
Island. 

Fig.  8  (194).  Unfinished  lamp  of  diorite.  From  Sin,  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  9  (1670).  Stone  lamp  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  10  (4).  Tobacco  mortar  made  of  a  whale’s  vertebra.  It  was  used  after  the  advent  of  the  Russians,  but  was 
in  the  possession  of  an  old  woman  in  Unalaska  and  was  considered  by  her  an  ancient  object. 


23  Prince  D.  E.  Ookhtomsky,  The  Oil  Lamps  of  the  Arctic  and  Subarctic  Tribes  (Memoirs  of  the  Russian 
Anthropological  Society  of  the  Petrograd  University,  vol.  IV,  1913,  Petrograd,  pp.  151-158)  (in  Russian). 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  20 


10 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  21 


i.  Stone  lamp  in  process  of  manufacture. 


2.  Stone  frying-pan. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens.  77 

here  our  aim  to  describe  bone  sections  of  these  implements,  or  fragments  of  them. 
Among  the  bone  objects  to  be  described  are  included  implements,  or  portions  of  them, 
used  not  only  in  war  and  hunting,  but  as  household  utensils  among  the  Aleut.  The 
stone  implements  used  in  the  manufacture  of  these  objects  of  bone  have  already  been 
described.  Bone  implements  were  polished  with  andesitic  lava,  but  more  glossy  and 
fine  vesicular,  with  andesitic  tuff,  and  with  horse-tail  ( Equisetum  nyemale ),  as  were 
implements  of  stone. 

Considerable  attention  should  be  here  given  to  the  foreshafts.  Many  of  them 
shown  here  are  made  of  walrus-tusk  ivory.  Tusks  of  walrus,  mammoth,  and  elephant, 
as  well  as  the  teeth,  horns,  and  antlers  of  other  animals,  consist  of  layers  of  bony  sub¬ 
stances  of  differing  density.  The  outer  layer  or  crust  is  considerably  harder  and 
thicker  than  the  inner  portion,  or  pulp  cavity,  called  cm\xx  by  the  Aleut.  In  order  to 
make  long  foreshafts  and  heads  for  throwing  implements  of  walrus-tusk,  it  was 
necessary  to  saw  or  cut  the  tusk  along  its  length,  and  thus  only  one  side  of  the 
material  contained  the  dense  bone  substance.  In  the  course  of  time  the  side,  with 
bone  of  lesser  density,  the  cmix\  contracted  in  drying,  thus  curving  the  implement. 
To  prevent  this  bending,  the  Aleut  made  deep  incisions  in  the  cmix\  In  the  speci¬ 
men  shown  in  plate  23,  figure  22,  the  incisions  did  not  help,  as  they  were  not  suffi¬ 
ciently  deep.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  foreshaft  was  straight  when 
excavated  and  became  curved  after  exposure  to  the  air. 

In  the  course  of  excavations  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  as  well  as  in  Siberia,  we 
found  innumerable  bent  bone-implements  which  were  originally  straight,  for  other¬ 
wise  they  could  not  have  been  aimed  either  in  warfare  or  hunting.  According  to 
the  laws  of  ballistics,  the  path  of  any  projectile  depends  on  its  form  and  partly  on 
the  manner  of  throwing  it.  For  example,  the  Australian  boomerang  and  the  curved 
knives  of  some  African  tribes  may  fly  in  a  complex  curve  and  return  to  strike  the 
ground  behind  the  thrower.  This  is  the  result  of  the  curved  form  of  the  weapon  and 
also  of  the  mode  of  throwing  it  with  the  hand  from  beneath  upwards.  The  boome¬ 
rang  strikes,  not  with  its  pointed  end,  but  with  the  sharpened  outer  edge  of  the 
curve.  But  in  the  case  of  an  arrow  discharged  by  a  bowstring  or  of  a  spear  cast 
with  a  throwing-board,  it  is  necessary  that  the  forward  part  of  the  missile,  as  well 
as  the  shaft,  be  quite  straight,  otherwise  the  weapon  would  change  its  path  and 
strike  the  object,  not  with  the  pointed  end,  but  with  its  flat  or  rounded  curved  side. 

That  primitive  hunters  knew  that  arrows  and  spears  must  be  quite  straight 
may  be  inferred  from  the  use  of  special  straighteners  for  the  shaft.  They  also  have 
a  sharp  eye  to  the  condition  of  the  weapon.  We  have  seen  Aleut  or  Yukaghir  hunters 
verifying  the  straightness  of  their  arrows  or  throwing-spears,  before  leaving  for  a 
hunt,  by  closing  one  eye  and  looking  along  the  weapon  with  the  other. 

We  refer  to  our  field  observations  in  order  to  show  that  there  can  be  no  curved 
projecting  weapons,  except  of  the  boomerang  type.  Nevertheless,  in  every  ethno¬ 
graphical  museum  curved  bone-implements  may  be  found.  One  European  museum 
curator,  who  had  not  been  in  the  field,  inquired  whether  the  author  knew  the  mode 
of  using  curved  spears.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  Aleut  or  Kamchadal  were 

( Text  continued  on  p.  79.) 


78 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Description  of  Plate  22. 

Fig.  1  (385)-  Bone  foreshaft  of  a  simple  harpoon  called  igi'kax '  by  the  Attu  Aleut,  and  the  foreshaft,  igi'kam 
qagna',  i.  e.,  the  bone  of  the  harpoon,  igi'kax '.  This,  as  well  as  the  following  4  foreshafts  on  this 
plate,  may  perhaps  be  designated  as  heads,  judging  by  their  thickness.24  Such  foreshafts  were 
found  only  on  Attu  Island  and  are  distinguished  from  the  bone  foreshafts  of  other  simple  harpoons 
by  their  shortness  and  thickness.  This  type  of  harpoon  (igi'kax')  was  thrown  at  seals  and  young 
sea-lions  from  shore  and  not  from  a  skin  boat.  Two  kinds  of  igi'kax '  were  distinguished,  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  size.  The  heavier  one,  called  kala'gax ',  was  thrown  at  animals  not  far  from  shore.  The 
point  of  this  harpoon  was  of  bone,  barbed  on  both  sides,  and  when  an  animal  was  hit,  the  point  was 
pulled  out  and  remained  in  the  wound  when  the  shaft  and  the  foreshaft  were  released.  The  base 
of  the  point  had  a  hole  for  the  attachment  of  a  sinew  string  or  thong,  the  other  end  of  which  was 
fastened  to  the  shaft.  The  base  of  the  bone  foreshaft  was  bifurcated  to  receive  the  wedge-shaped 
upper  end  of  the  wooden  shaft  which  was  firmly  fixed  in  this  socket  with  fish-glue  reinforced  by 
a  lashing  of  sinew  cord.  Directly  over  the  bifurcation  of  the  foreshaft  was  a  perforation  to  which 
was  attached  a  sinew  cord,  the  other  end  of  which  was  fastened  to  the  lower,  tapering,  end 
of  the  shaft.  Should  the  shaft  be  broken  when  the  animal  is  struck,  the  heavy  foreshaft  remains 
attached  to  it  and  thus  is  secured  from  sinking.  The  foreshaft  in  the  illustration  (1)  is  made  of  a 
tooth  of  the  whale  called  by  the  Aleut  ayigi'gix '.  It  was  found  in  Pit  4,  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island,  at  a 
depth  of  1.7  meters,  among  the  bones  of  whales. 

Fig.  2  (318).  Bone  foreshaft  similar  to  figure  1,  but  smaller.  It  was  found  in  the  same  pit. 

Fig.  3  (316).  Foreshaft  similar  to  figure  1,  distinguished  from  it  by  its  upper  part,  which  is  carved  in  the  form 
of  bird  wings.  Found  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  4  (386).  Foreshaft  with  a  wedge-shaped  base  fitted  into  a  slit  at  the  end  of  the  shaft.  In  the  base  of  the 
foreshaft  is  a  perforation  to  receive  the  bone  peg  which  fixed  it  to  the  shaft.  In  addition,  the  end 
of  the  shaft  was  lashed  with  a  sinew  cord.  The  foreshaft  has  a  lateral  hole,  similar  to  that  in 
figure  1,  to  which  was  attached  a  thong  called  unuxsuli'  max' ,  the  other  end  of  which  was  tied  to 
the  shaft.  Found  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  5  (453).  Bone  foreshaft  similar  to  the  preceding  specimens,  but  with  the  lower  end  broken  off.  Traces  of 
straight-lined  ornamentation  still  remain.  The  head  is  carved  like  the  wings  of  a  bird,  as  in  figure  3. 
The  foreshaft  is  distinguished  from  the  others  by  a  groove  around  the  upper  edge,  to  which  the 
cord  of  the  point  had  evidently  been  attached.  Found  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  6  (1855).  Harpoon  foreshaft  made  of  a  sea-lion’s  penis-bone.  Its  lower  end  was  placed  in  a  socket  at  the 
end  of  the  shaft  and  was  held  in  place  by  a  bone  ring.  Found  at  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  7  (1517).  Fragment  of  a  bone  handle  (u'tux')  for  a  stone  knife  or  adze.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig,  8  (1421).  Bone  handle  similar  to  the  above,  188  mm.  long.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  9  (1166).  Knife  or  adze  handle,  170  mm.  long.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  10  (1514).  Small  bone  shovel  (kasi'qum  takadu'ca )  for  removing  from  rocks  and  reefs,  during  low  tide, 
the  chiton  Katharina  tunicata  Wood  (Aleut,  kasi'gux').  A  wooden  handle  was  attached  to  the 
grooved  end.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  11  (1943).  Fragment  of  an  unfinished  head  of  a  simple  harpoon.  From  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  12  (1244).  Handle  of  a  man’s  knife  (cunu'six).  Length,  170  mm.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  13  (1347).  Shovel  similar  to  figure  10,  but  longer,  and  used  without  a  handle.  From  Natxu'kax',  Umnak 
Island. 

Fig.  14  (483).  Scraper  (capta' six')  for  dressing  guts.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  15  (280).  Sea-otter’s  penis-bone  (cna'tum-unni' -qagna')  which  served  as  material  for  a  flaking  implement 
(see  above,  p.  70)  or  for  points  for  small  harpoon-darts.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  16  (285).  Bone  similar  to  the  preceding,  found  at  the  same  site. 

Fig.  17  (1681).  Scraper  for  dressing  seal-skins.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  18  (1422).  Knife  (cumu' six')  handle  which  had  evidently  served  previously  as  a  wedge  for  splitting  wood, 
judging  from  the  marks  of  hammer-strokes.  The  battered  and  pecked  surface  of  the  upper  portion 
also  bears  evidence  that  the  handle  had  been  used  as  a  hammer  for  breaking  echini  shells.  Length, 
143  mm.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  19  (1243).  Shovel  like  figures  10  and  13.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  20  (1171).  Skin-dressing  scraper.  Length,  160  mm.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  21  (692).  Fragment  of  a  foreshaft  of  a  harpoon  called  aga'lgix',  for  hunting  seals  and  sea-otters.  From 
Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 


24  Because  of  the  absence  of  barbs  at  the  side,  these  have  been  designated  as  foreshafts. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  22 


19 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


79 


asked  to  explain  the  curved  weapons  found  in  excavations,  they  said  that  they  were 
made  straight,  but  became  curved,  owing  to  the  unfitness  of  the  material  or  the  lack 
of  skill  of  the  maker. 

The  following  text-figures  belong  with  plate  22 : 

Fig.  45  (315).  Foreshaft  of  a  simple  harpoon  ( igi'kax see  plate  21,  figs.  1  to  s),  made  of  the  tooth  of  a  whale 
( ayigi'gix ').  The  notches  in  the  middle  of  the  foreshaft  are  the  marks  of  strokes  with  a  stone  adze. 
Evidently  it  had  been  intended  to  make  some  other  implement  from  this  foreshaft.  The  Aleut  who 
assisted  in  the  excavations  believed  that  it  was  intended  to  cut  off  the  fractured  upper  part  to  make 
a  wedge  of  the  lower  part,  but  it  is  possible  that  the  notched  foreshaft,  reminding  one  of  a  human 
figure,  served  as  an  amulet. 

Fig.  46  (453).  Foreshaft,  illustrated  also  on  plate  22,  figure  5,  showing  the  cavity  for  holding  the  point  of  the 
harpoon.  This  cavity  is  too  large  and  had  evidently  been  wedged  with  wood  to  decrease  its  size  to 
receive  the  base  of  a  bone  point.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  47  (268).  Bone  knife  used  for  smoothing  the  ribs  of  the  frame  of  a  skin  boat.  The  handle  is  engraved  and 
scratched  to  roughen  its  surface  that  it  may  not  slip  from  the  hand.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 
Fig.  48^  (1005).  Much-decayed  bone  plate  which  had  evidently  served  for  removing  mollusks  from  sea  rocks. 
From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  48 B  (1070).  Scraper  ( qitqu'six ')  for  dressing  bird-skins  and  guts  of  sea  mammals.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax'. 
Umnak  Island,  found  in  the  lowest  layer  of  kitchen  refuse. 


The  knife  shown  in  text-figure  49 A,  B  was  cut  out  of  a  walrus-tusk  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  dentine  is  on  one  side  and  the  pulp  cavity  on  the  other,  and  so  the 
latter,  in  drying  up,  shortened  and  curved  the  knife.  Figure  49Z?  presents  a  side 
view  of  the  curved  knife.  Another  knife  (fig.  50)  made  from  the  same  tusk,  but 
only  of  the  dentine,  remains  straight.  Both  knives  are  in  the  possession  of  the 
author.  Figures  51  and  52  show  2  ice-picks  which  serve  also  as  spears  and  are 
fastened  to  the  butt  end  of  the  wooden  shafts  of  Eskimo  sealing-harpoons.  These 
specimens  (1-2281  and  60.1-3919)  are  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His¬ 
tory.  The  latter  (fig.  52)  is  curved,  owing  to  the  cause  before  mentioned.  Figure  51, 
however,  has  remained  straight  as  a  result  of  the  groove  in  the  pulp  cavity.25 

( Text  continued  on  p.  81.) 

25  Similar  specimens  may  be  found  in  every  museum.  Particularly  worthy  of  mention  are  the  ice-picks  of 
harpoons  in  the  U.  S.  National  Museum,  Washington, 


80 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Description  of  Plate  23. 

Fig.  1  (1751).  Walrus-tusk  head  of  a  war  throwing-lance,  with  a  sharpened  point  and  without  a  stone  blade. 
From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  2  (1147).  Head  of  a  war  throwing-lance  ( anga'qim  igiqa'gan  tumgd',  i.  e.,  a  bone  of  a  throwing-lance  for 
man)  with  backward-pointing  barbs  and  engraved  ornament.  For  the  method  of  attaching  the  head 
to  other  parts  of  the  throwing-lance,  see  text-figure  53.  The  head  was  fastened  to  the  shaft  by  means 
of  the  perforation  above  its  base.  This  specimen  was  found  together  with  figures  3  to  6  and  8  on  the 
skeleton  of  a  warrior  in  Pit  1,  Ukix,  Umnak  Island  (see  plate  11,  fig.  3). 

Fig.  3  (1144).  Lance-head  similar  to  that  shown  in  figure  2.  The  rounded  stem  of  a  stone  blade  was  fitted  into 
the  ladle-like  cavity  in  the  bone  head,  which  bore  painted  ornamentation,  as  evidenced  by  a  few 
remnants  of  the  paint  (black  and  red)  which  still  remained. 

Fig.  4  (1146).  (See  fig.  3.)  Stem  of  the  bone  head  is  broken  off.  In  the  cavity  for  receiving  the  stone  point 
may  be  seen  a  yellow  powder,  the  remains  of  glue  yielded  by  a  cod-fish  eye. 

Figs.  5  (1145)  and  6  (1147a)  are  similar  to  figure  2. 

Fig.  7  (151).  Bone  harpoon-head  used  for  hunting  whales.  A  stone  point  was  inserted  in  the  bifurcated  upper 
end.  The  peculiarity  in  this  bone  consists  in  the  method  of  cutting  deep  into  it  over  the  barbs  in 
order  that  some  part  may  break  when  a  whale  is  struck  and  thus  become  embedded  in  it.  The  lower 
rounded  end  swung  freely  in  the  socket  of  the  shaft  and  was  not  attached.  In  striking,  the  shaft  is 
entirely  separated  from  the  head.  Found  on  Hog  Island. 

Fig.  8  (1148).  See  figure  2  (1147). 

Fig.  9  (419) .  Bone  head  of  a  throwing-lance  used  in  war  as  well  as  in  hunting  sea  mammals.  A  stone  blade  was 
inserted  in  the  bifurcated  upper  end.  As  was  usual  for  throwing-lances,  its  head  had  backward¬ 
pointing  barbs.  It  is  shown  on  the  plate  in  reverse  position.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Figs,  ii  (628),  12  (656),  13  (657),  14  (1345),  15  (629),  16  (936),  and  17  (630)  represent  bone  heads,  or  frag¬ 
ments  of  bone  heads,  of  throwing-lances  (cuni'lgix') .  With  the  exception  of  figure  14  (1345),  found 
at  Agla'gax'  on  Umnak  Island,  all  the  others  were  found,  together  with  figure  10  (627),  in  the  layer 
containing  skeletal  remains  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  18  (417).  Bone  harpoon  {akli’ gax')  head,  barbed  only  on  one  side.  The  harpoon  was  supplied  with  a  blad¬ 
der  and  was  thrown  at  a  sea  mammal  already  wounded  with  another  throwing-weapon.  Found  in 
Pit  4,  Nani'kax'  site,  Attu  Island,  at  a  depth  of  3  meters,  in  a  layer  of  fish-bones. 

Fig.  19  (691).  Unfinished  foreshaft  of  a  harpoon  (aga’lgix') .  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  20  (266).  Bone  foreshaft  of  a  simple  harpoon  (ayukda’x'),  from  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  21  (1359).  Foreshaft,  similar  to  the  preceding,  260  mm.  long.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  22  (1075).  Foreshaft  of  a  simple  harpoon  (ayukda'x')  used  for  hunting  sea-otters.  The  foreshaft  appears 
bent  in  the  illustration,  but  this  was  not  its  original  form,  it  was  curved  afterwards.  It  is  264  mm. 
long.  Found  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  23  (1358).  The  foreshaft  of  a  simple  harpoon  called  ayukda'x',  350  mm.  long.  According  to  the  Aleut,  fore¬ 
shafts  in  olden  times  were  still  longer.  The  specimen  in  this  illustration  is  unfinished :  the  pocket  to 
receive  the  bone  head  is  not  carved.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  24  (1132).  Bone  foreshaft  for  a  large  and  heavy  harpoon  called  aga'lgix '.  It  “was  thrown  at  seals  and  sea- 
otters  in  their  rookeries.  The  end  of  the  thong  attached  to  the  bone  head  was  held  by  the  hunter. 
The  length  of  the  foreshaft  is  280  mm.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  23 


Bone  heads  of  war  and  hunting-darts  and  foreshafts  of  harpoons.  About  two-fifths  natural  size. 


:a 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


81 


The  best  way  to  prevent  implements  from  bending-  is  to  make  them  of  bone  of 
the  same  density  throughout.  Arrows  and  spears  made  of  such  material  never 
curve.  If,  however,  on  account  of  lack  of  material,  both  layers  of  a  tusk  must  be 
used,  there  are  technical  ways  to  prevent  curving.  Deep  incisions  are  made  on  the 
side  of  lesser  density.  Ordinarily,  such  incisions  are  made  at  regular  intervals, 
so  that  they  look  like  ornamental  lines.  In  this  way  we  see  how  objects  made  for 
utility  may  eventually  satisfy  the  esthetic  sense.  On  some  bone  implements  we  have 
seen  incised  parallel  lines,  zigzags,  dots,  and  circles  on  one  side  only,  all  made  to 
prevent  curving.  Some  arrow  and  spear  heads  were  barbed  on  one  side  only,  on  the 
side  of  lesser  density,  to  prevent  curving.  In  this  case,  however,  the  barbs  may  have 
2  practical  ends  in  view:  the  technical  one,  and  another,  to  inflict  a  severe,  extra¬ 
ordinarily  painful  wound. 


49  A 


Fig.  49. — A,  curved  bone  knife;  B,  side  view. 
Fig.  50. — Straight  bone  knife. 


In  connection  with  the  foregoing,  reference  should  be  made  to  some  Eskimo 
and  Siberian  bone  spears  with  deep  longitudinal  grooves  called  “  blood-channels,” 
from  the  German,  “  Blut-Rinne.”  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  blood-channel  may 
have  been  intended  to  serve  as  a  channel  through  which  to  receive  the  blood  from 
the  wound.  It  appears  to  the  writer  that  this  idea  has  no  foundation  whatever. 
First,  the  spear  is  not  a  faucet,  and  the  body  of  the  animal  is  not  a  barrel.  On  the 
contrary,  the  form  of  the  wound  quite  corresponds  to  the  form  of  the  weapon  and 
the  latter  often  appears  rather  as  a  spigot  or  plug  stopping  up  the  wound.26  Then, 
if  some  important  deep-lying  blood-vessels  are  hit,  like  the  heart  blood-vessels,  there 
may  be  only  internal  bleeding.  We  have  frequently  observed  the  reindeer  breeder 
killing  reindeer  for  food.  They  stab  them  in  the  heart  with  a  spear  and  there  is 
no  external  bleeding  at  all,  except  for  a  few  drops  of  blood.  But  abundant  external 
bleeding  takes  place  when  blood-vessels  nearer  the  surface  are  hit,  like  the  neck 

26  Some  hunting  tribes,  for  instance,  the  Eskimo,  use  bone  plugs  to  close  the  wounds  of  animals,  but  this 
is  done  after  the  spear  is  removed  (see  Franz  Boas,  The  Central  Eskimo,  p.  479;  idem.  The  Eskimo  of  Baffin 
Land  and  Hudson  Bay,  pp.  18,  19.) 


82 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


arteries ;  but  in  this  case  the  grooved  spear  is  useless.  The  blood  will  spurt  as  from 
a  fountain  and  the  natives,  eager  not  to  lose  it,  put  a  vessel  under  the  wound  to 
catch  it.  The  purpose  of  the  so-called  blood-channel,  therefore,  is  made  merely  to 
prevent  the  spear  from  curving.  This  may  best  be  shown  by  the  illustrations  in 
figures  51  and  52. 


51  52  53 

Figs.  51  to  57. — Si,  straight  ice-pick  of  a  harpoon;  52,  curved  ice-pick  of  a  harpoon; 


53,  throwing-lance  for  war;  54,  sections  of  a  throwing-lance  for  war;  55,  bone 
point  of  fish-spear;  56,  harpoon-head;  57,  foreshaft  of  bow-arrow. 

Evidently  this  method  of  preventing  curvature  in  bone  implements  was  known 
to  Stone  Age  man  in  Europe.  Obermaier,  when  illustrating  bone  spear-heads  of 
the  late  palaeolithic  period  in  France,  calls  the  grooves  on  some  of  them  “  Blut-bzw. 
Giftrinnen.”  We  can  say  nothing  about  poison,  but  these  grooves  were  certainly 
not  made  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  blood  from  the  wound.27 

27  Dr.  Hugo  Obermaier,  Der  Mensch  der  Vorzeit.  Allgemeine  Verlags  Gesellschaft,  Berlin-Munchen- 
Wien,  p.  296,  and  pi.  22,  figs.  10,  16,  20. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitclien  Middens. 


83 


This  applies  also  to  some  specimens  found  by  Riviere  at  a  palaeolithic  station 
at  Laugerie  Haute,  France,  and  at  present  in  the  Peabody  Museum  at  Yale  Uni¬ 
versity.  Doctor  G.  G.  MacCurdy,  in  his  article  on  that  collection,  gives  illustrations 
of  “  pointed  implements  of  reindeer  horn,  two  with  longitudinal  grooves  (presuma¬ 
bly  for  the  outflow  of  blood)  and  one  with  small  oblique  grooves.”  28  In  the  opinion 
of  the  writer,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  longitudinal  grooves  in  the  2  speci¬ 
mens  are  the  result  of  removing  the  inner  bone  substance  to  prevent  their  bending 
and  that  the  oblique  grooves  of  the  third  specimen  were  made  to  the  same  end,  but 
without  removing  the  pulp-cavity. 

It  should  be  added  that  grooves  often  appear  on  swords,  daggers,  and  knives 
of  bronze  and  steel  which,  like  those  on  bone  weapons,  are  called  blood-channels. 
These  certainly  are  not  made  to  receive  blood,  but  in  imitation  of  bone  weapons, 
since  there  seems  no  doubt  that  with  the  coming  of  the  metal  age  man  imitated  in 
metal  the  implements  of  the  stone  age. 

The  following  text-figures  belong  with  plate  23 : 

Text-figure  53  (1699)  demonstrates  how  different  parts  of  the  war  throwing- 
lance  were  joined  (see  figs.  2  to  6  and  8,  plate  22).  The  lance  was  called  anga'gim 
igiqa ' ,  i.  e.,  a  throwing-spear  for  man,  or  ali'txum  igiqa' ,  i.  e.,  a  war  throwing-spear. 
a ,  shaft  ( i'glax ')  ;  b,  bone  ring  or  bone  belt  ( tu'mux ')  consisting  of  2  halves;  c,  bone 
foreshaft  called  igi'qax\  as  the  whole  weapon;  d,  stone  point  ( ka'dax ')  of  andesite. 

The  bone  belt,  into  which  the  stem  of  the  foreshaft  enters,  is  placed  on  the 
wedge-shaped  end  of  the  shaft.  Through  a  perforation  in  the  foreshaft  above  its 
stem  and  by  means  of  a  sinew  cord,  the  foreshaft  is  fastened  to  the  bone  belt.  This 
cord  is  lashed  all  around  the  belt,  covering  it  altogether.  The  lashing  is  continued 
also  below  the  belt  around  the  shaft  and  the  end,  stretching  forth  along  the  shaft, 
is  fastened  to  its  lower  end.  The  stone  point  or  blade  is  received  by  the  ladle-like 
cavity  in  upper  end  of  the  foreshaft  to  which  it  is  attached  with  glue  made  from 
a  cod-fish  eye  or  by  gum  resin  and  fastened  with  a  sinew  thread  lashing.  The 
length  of  the  barbed  foreshaft  corresponds  to  the  distance  between  the  planes  of 
chest  and  spine  of  an  adult.  The  spear,  when  hitting  the  chest,  had  to  pass  through 
the  body  and  perforate  the  spine.  The  backward-pointing  barbs  ( ta'lin ,  plural  from 
ta'lix twig)  were  made  so  that  the  spear  could  not  be  extracted  from  the  wound. 
The  barbs  have  sharpened  edges  and  are  hollowed  out  inside.  The  ornaments  on 
the  foreshaft  were  incised  with  a  stone  implement,  and  the  engraved  figures  were 
filled  with  black  or  red  paint.  The  general  name  for  engravings  is  cuna'sin  from 
cu'nan,  dam  of  a  river.  Separately  engraved  figures  are  called:  the  notched 
ornament  at  the  sides,  cu'nax\  i.  e.,  a  stick  of  a  dam  or  weir;  cu'dux\  ornament  of 
incised  lines;  cu'mix\  dots;  qixma  dgux\  circular  dots  or  punch-marks;  all  other 
figures  are  called  anugna  sin.  This  type  of  throwing-spear  was  cast  at  a  distance 
of  20  fathoms ;  a  dextrous  warrior  could  throw  at  a  distance  of  25  fathoms.  Made 
by  Boris  Besyasykov,  an  old  Aleut  on  Umnak  Island.  ( Text  continued  on  p.  85.) 

28  See  George  Grant  MacCurdy,  Certain  Specimens  from  the  Riviere  Collection,  American  Anthropologist, 
vol.  25,  No.  1,  1923,  p.  81. 


84 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Description  of  Plate  24. 

Fig.  1  (989).  One  of  the  circular  prongs  of  a  dart  for  water  birds  {cata'  six') .  It  consisted  of  a  shaft  ( i'glax ') 
and  of  4  barbed  bone  prongs  ( nu  gin ,  cata'sin,  or  cata'sim  kada'nin).  One  of  the  prongs,  the  cen¬ 
tral  one,  was  straight.  The  other  3,  the  circular  ones,  were  curved.  Found  in  Pit  1,  Agla'gax',  Umnak 
Island. 

Fig.  2  (2113).  Similar  to  figure  1,  made  of  walrus  ivory.  Length  197  mm.  Found  at  a  depth  of  0.7  meter  at 
Tanaxta'xax',  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  3  (2114).  A  fragment  of  a  circular  prong  of  a  fish-spear.  Found  at  a  depth  of  2.2  meters  at  Tanaxta'xax', 
Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  4  (1519).  A  fragment  of  the  central  prong  of  a  fish  spear.  Found  at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  s  (2111).  A  circular  prong  of  a  fish  spear  of  walrus  ivory.  Length  25  mm.  Found  at  a  depth  of  0.7  meter, 
at  Tanaxta'xax',  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  6  (21112).  A  specimen  similar  to  figure  5;  length  240  mm. 

Fig.  7  (1577).  Awl  {axsila' six' ,  i.  e.,  that  by  which  holes  are  made)  made  of  an  albatross  wing.  From  Uglu'dax', 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  8  (1570).  Bone  awl  for  splitting  sinews  of  sea  mammals  into  threads  for  sewing,  called  iga'cim-caglisi’, 
i.  e.,  implement  for  splitting  sinews.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  9  (350)  and  10  (441).  Bone  awls  similar  to  the  preceding.  Found  at  Nani'kax',  A'ttu  Island. 

Fig.  11  (839).  Piece  of  bone  of  an  albatross’s  wing  cut  off  for  making  needles.  From  Hala'ca,  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  12  (442).  Similar  to  figures  9  and  10. 

Figs.  13  (2108),  14  (2038),  15  (973),  16  (1270),  17  (2041),  18  (984),  19  (11184),  20  (i960),  21  (mi),  22  (1527), 
23  ( 175) ,  24  (2150),  25  (1077),  and  26  (1524)  represent  bone  heads  or  points  of  a  small  harpoon, 
called  ayukda'x',  used  in  the  sea  from  skin  boats  in  hunting  sea-otters  and  seals.  As  distinguished 
from  other  heads  and  points  called  ka'dax' ,  these  heads  also  have  a  special  name,  saxsi'dax'  or 
ayugda'gim  saxsi'da.  These  bone  heads  vary  with  reference  to  the  number  and  position  of  their 
barbs,  which  occur  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  head.  The  flat  tang  is  loosely  fitted  into  the  foreshaft 
and  the  harpoon  cord  is  attached  to  the  neck  of  the  head  above  the  tang.  Judging  from  the  frag¬ 
ment,  only  figure  21  had  a  perforation  above  the  tang.  It  is  possible  that  originally  it  was  a  head 
for  a  large  simple  harpoon  of  the  aga'lgix *  type  which  was  later  sharpened  off.  Figures  13  and  14 
were  found  iti  Tanaxta'xax'  on  Amaknax  Island;  figures  14  and  17  at  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island; 
figures  15,  18,  20,  and  25  at  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island;  figures  16  and  19  at  Ukix,  Umnak  Island; 
figures  21  and  23  at  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island;  and  figures  22  and  26  at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  27  (1338).  Foreshaft  for  a  bow-arrow,  from  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island.  The  top  is  turned  down  on  the  plate. 

Fig.  28  (1057).  Head  of  the  harpoon  ayugda'x'  [see  fig.  13  (2108)],  from  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  29  (1552).  Head  of  a  small  harpoon  ( akli'gix ')  thrown  at  seals,  sea-otters,  and  fur-seals,  while  in  their 
rookeries,  at  a  short  distance.  The  head  was  called  cuyini’lgix '  or  akli'ghn  cuyinilgV.  It  was 
attached  to  a  thong  held  by  the  hunter,  was  87  mm.  long,  and  was  found  in  Pit  1  at  Agla'gax', 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  30  (1116).  Fragment  of  the  central  prong  of  a  bird  throwing-spear  from  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  31  (1078).  Head  of  a  harpoon  {ayugda'x')  with  point  broken  off.  Found  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  32  (2042).  Fragment  of  the  central  prong  of  a  bird  throwing-spear  from  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  33  (1143).  Bone  prong  of  an  implement  by  which  sea-urchins  were  obtained  from  the  water.  This  imple¬ 
ment  was  called  cuniga’six '  and  consisted  of  a  long  shaft  to  the  end  of  which  four  circular  bone 
prongs  ( cuniga’sim  agatu' ,  i.  e.,  tooth  of  the  implement,  cuniga! six')  were  tied.  From  Ukix,  Umnak 
Island. 

Fig.  34  (145).  Bone  point  {ka'dax')  of  an  arrow  ( aga’dax ')  used  with  a  bow  {sa'yigix') ,  according  to  infor¬ 
mation  obtained  from  the  Aleut  assisting  with  the  excavations.  Unbarbed  points  or  heads  were  not 
used  for  hunting  birds  or  mammals.  Found  on  Hog  Island.29 

Fig.  35  (1107).  Fragment  of  a  circular  bone  prong  for  a  bird  throwing-spear  from  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  36  (2039).  Fragment  similar  to  that  in  figure  35,  from  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  37  (1196).  Central  prong  of  a  bird-dart.  Length  150  mm.  From  Pit  3,  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  38  (1009).  Fragment  of  the  central  prong  of  a  bird-dart.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  39  (1542).  Head  of  a  bow-arrow  {sa'yigim  agada'gan  kada'  or  tumga',  i.  e.,  a  point  or  bone  of  an  arrow  for 
a  bow).  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  40  (1071).  Central  prong  of  a  bird-dart.  Found  in  the  lowest  layer  of  kitchen  refuse  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax', 
Umnak  Island.  It  is  176  mm.  long. 

Figs.  41  (1014)  and  42  (1013).  Fragments  of  the  central  prongs  of  bird-darts.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak 
Island. 

Fig.  43  (428).  Head  of  a  harpoon  called  ayukda'x'  from  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Figs.  44  (775)  and  45  (764).  Central  prongs  of  bird-darts  with  points  broken  off.  Found  at  a  depth  of  2.8 
meters,  under  a  layer  containing  skeletal  remains,  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island.  On  the  plate, 
their  bases  are  turned  up. 


29  In  connection  with  the  statement  of  the  Unalaska  Aleut  working  on  Hog  Island,  it  should  also  be  noted 
that  the  Atka  Aleut  told  us  of  some  unbarbed  bone  heads  and  of  points  of  throwing-lances  for  hunting  sea 
mammals.  (See  pi.  25,  figs.  29,  30.) 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  24 


Bone  points  for  throwing-implements,  bird-darts,  small  harpoons,  and  sections  of  other  bone  implements. 

About  two-fifths  natural  size. 


) 

—  •  ..  ...  .......  I  Jo 


. 


*  1 1 


' 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


85 


Description  of  Plate  24  ( Continued ) 

Fig.  46  (321).  Fragment  of  a  head,  evidently  of  a  fishing-lance.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  4 7  (1117).  Head  of  a  fishing-lance  with  the  barbs  broken.  From  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  48  (1929).  Head  of  a  fishing-lance  in  the  form  of  a  hook,  from  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  49  (ion).  Head  of  a  fishing-lance  from  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  50  (1519).  Harpoon-head  (ayukda'x')  from  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  51  (1030).  Head  ( sa'qax ')  of  a  fishing-spear  (aya'kux')  with  the  point  broken  off.  Found  at  a  depth  of 
5.2  meters,  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  52  (1511).  Head  of  throwing-lance  used  for  hitting  seals  and  fur  seals  when  sleeping  on  surface  of  water.  At 
such  times  they  may  be  closely  approached  in  skin  boats.  The  bone  head  of  these  lances  had  stone 
points.  The  engraved  cross-lines  are  property  marks  ( ana'tix ').  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  53  (435).  Unfinished  section  of  a  throwing-implement,  possibly  the  circular  prong  of  a  bird-dart  (see 
fig-  5fi)-  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  54  (769).  The  central  prong  of  a  bird-dart.  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  55  (1049).  Fragment  of  the  central  prong  of  a  bird-dart.  From  Pit  2,  Site  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  56  (277).  Circular  prong  of  a  bird-dart,  according  to  the  statements  of  the  Aleut.  The  prong  was  tied  to 
the  shaft  by  one  of  the  end  barbs.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  57  (761).  Central  prong  of  a  bird-dart  found  at  a  depth  of  2.8  meters  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 


Figure  54  ( A  to  C )  represents  another  kind  of  bone  head  with  a  stone  point 
used  in  war.  Both  parts  of  this  war  throwing-spear  were  found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax', 
Atka  Island.  On  Atka  Island,  as  on  the  islands  of  Attu  and  Umnak,  the  stone  point 
of  a  war  spear  was  received  by  a  ladle-like  cavity  in  the  barbed  bone-head.  A  shows 
the  upper  end  of  the  head  with  the  cavity  for  receiving  the  stem  of  the  stone  point; 
B,  the  natural  size  of  the  whole  bone  head.  The  stem  of  the  bone  head  was  placed 
in  the  bone  belt  on  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  and  fastened  to  it  by  means  of  pro¬ 
jecting  spurs  over  the  stem  and  a  sinew  cord.  The  bone  of  the  head  was  much 
decayed  and  the  backward-pointed  barbs  are  blunted  or  have  fallen  off.  C  (905) 
is  a  stone  point  of  light-green  hornstone  schist  with  thin  veins  of  quartz. 

Figure  55  (1170).  Bone  point  (sa'qax')  of  a  fish-spear  (aya’kux') .  The  point 
was  attached  directly  to  the  shaft.  A  piece  was  cut  from  the  lower  end.  A  piece  was 
also  cut  off  the  shaft  to  receive  the  point.  The  joint  was  lashed  by  a  sinew  cord 
and  strips  of  whalebone.  The  end  of  the  point  was  decayed  in  the  earth.  With  this 
lance  fish  were  speared  near  the  dam  or  weir.  Found  in  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

The  following  text-figures  are  connected  with  plate  25 : 

Figure  56  (1774).  Head  ( cuyini'lgix ')  of  the  harpoon  ( aga'lgix ')  which  was 
cast  at  sea  mammals,  chiefly  sea-otters,  when  they  were  asleep  on  rookeries  and 
when  the  hunters  could  steal  upon  them  under  cover  of  the  darkness.  When  an  ani¬ 
mal  was  struck  the  hunter  tightened  the  sinew  thong  attached  to  the  harpoon-head ; 
the  other  end  of  the  line  was  held  by  the  hunter,  who  after  having  drawn  the  animal 
within  reach,  clubbed  it  to  death.  The  barbs  on  the  head  decayed  in  the  earth.  The 
head  is  ornamented  with  dots  engraved  on  a  line.  A  notch  under  the  cord  perfora¬ 
tion  is  a  property-mark  (ana'tix').  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Figure  5 7  (1901).  Foreshaft  of  a  bow-arrow  into  the  bifurcated  upper  end 
of  which  a  stone  point  was  inserted.  The  foreshafts  of  bow-arrows  shown  in  plate  24, 
figure  27,  and  on  plate  25,  figures  19,  20,  33,  35,  and  37  were  attached  to  the  shaft 
at  the  bifurcated  end,  and  a  bone  point  was  inserted  in  the  socket  at  the  other  end. 
Found  at  .Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island.  (Text  continued  on  p.  87.) 


86 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Description  of  Plate  25. 

Fig.  1  (1374).  Head  of  a  small  harpoon  for  hunting  fur-seals.  On  Atka  Island,  the  harpoon  was  called  ti'nix * 
and  its  head  ti'nim  kadd'..  On  Umnak  Island  it  was  called  cuyini'lgix '  (similar  to  fig.  29,  plate  23). 
It  is  barbed  only  on  one  side.  Found  in  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  2  (1498).  Probably  the  head  of  a  harpoon  ( ayugda'x ').  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  3  (906),  4  (1543),  and  5  (772).  Central  prongs  of  a  bird-dart.  Figures  3  and  5  were  found  in  Cave  2, 
Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island,  and  figure  4  in  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  6  (1014).  Head  of  a  harpoon  ( cuyini'lgix ')  for  hunting  seals  and  fur-seals.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak 
Island. 

Fig.  7  (767).  Central  prong  of  a  bird-dart.  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Umnak  Island.  . 

Figs.  8  (1691)  and  9  (427).  Harpoon  ( cuyini'lgix ')  heads  for  hunting  seals  and  fur-seals.  Figure  8  was.  found 
in  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island,  and  figure  9  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island.  In  the  Attu  dialect,  the  harpoon 
( cuyini'lgix ')  is  called  agalga'yax' . 

Fig.  10  (1913).  Harpoon-head  similar  to  figure  1.  Found  at  a  depth  of  1  meter  at  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  11  (2073)..  Fragment  of  a  fish-spear  found  at  a  depth  of  3.7  meters  at  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  12  (418).  The  head  of  a  throwing-lance  ( igi'qax ')  with  barbs  on  both  sides.  This  type  of  lance  was  cast  at 
sea  mammals  in  the.  water  from  a  position  on  shore.  It  is.  a  light  weapon  and  is  capable  of  being 
thrown  for  considerable  distances.  According  to  the  Attu  people,  the  throwing-lance  ( igi'qax ')  was 
used  in  war  and  particularly -in  battles  with  the  first  Russian  invaders.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Figs.  13  (998),  14  (999)  and  15  (776).  Fragments  of  the  central  prongs  of  bird-darts.  Figures  13  and  14  were 

found  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island,  and  figure  15  at  a  depth  of  2.8  meters  at  Atxa'lax',  Atka 

Island. 

Fig.  16  (1015).  The  head  of  a  harpoon  ( cuyini'lgix ')  for  hunting  seals  and  sea-otters.  It  is  barbed  on  bne  side 

only.  The  barbs  are  carved  but  in  a  particular  way  and  hollowed  out  inside  (see  text-fig.  83). 

Fig.  17  (1520).  Circular  prong  of  a  bird-dart.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  18  (1366).  The  head  of  a  broken  arrow-point,  evidently  for  a  bow  arrow.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  19  (1206)  and  20  (1012).  Foreshafts  of  bow-arrows,  shown  with,  the  bases  turned  up.  The  tapering  end 
of  the  shaft  is  inserted  in  the  bifurcated  end  while  the  upper  end  contains  a  socket  to  receive  the 
point.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  21  (1335)  and  22  (1012).  Circular  prongs  of  bird-darts.  Figure  21  is  a  fragment.  Found  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax', 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  23  (768).  Harpoon-head  similar  to  that  shown  in  figure  16.  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  24  (1180).  Unfinished  central  prong  of  a  bird-dart.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  25  (1935).  Fragment  of  a  fish-spear.  From  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Fig.  26  (2029).  Fragment  of  a  harpoon-head  ( dyuqda'x ).  From  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island. 

Figs.  27  (.1282)  and  28  (1356)..  Fish-spear  heads.  The  projections  at  the  lower  ends  are  for  tying  the  head  to 
the  shaft.  The  points  had  decayed.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  29  (1204),  30  (IG38)  and  31  (1203).  (See.fig.  1.)  Figures  29  and  31  were  found  in  Ukix,  on  Umnak  Island, 
and  figure  30  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  32  (1692).  Foreshaft  of  a  throwing-lance  (igi'qax')  used  in  war  as  well  as  in  hunting  sea  mammals.  The 
bone  is  slightly  decayed.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  33  (175).  Foreshaft  of  a  bow-arrow.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  34  (990).  Head  of  a  fish-spear  (aya'kum  saqd').  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  35  (147).  Foreshaft  of  a  bow-arrow.  From  Hog  Island. 

Fig.  36  (1352).  Harpoon  head  ( cuyini'lgix ')  for  hunting  fur-tseals.  It  is  151  mm.  long  and  is  distinguished  from 
other  harpoons  of  this  kind  by  the  perforation  in  the  tang  for  a  thong.  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  37  (1187).  Walrus  ivory  foreshaft  of  a  bow-arrow  ( sa'yigim  agada'gan  tumga'kix) ,  97  mm.  long.  From 
Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  38  (1115)  and  39  (2075).  Heads  of  fish  spears.  Figure  38  was  found  in  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island,  and 
figure  39  in  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island,  at  a  depth  of  3.7  meters. 

Figs.  40  (934),  41  (1183),  42  (1090)  and  43  (1089).  Points  for  fish-hooks.  Figure  40  was  found  in  Cave  2, 
Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island.  Figure  41,  made  of  a  sea-liori’s  tooth,  was  found  at  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 
Figures  42  and  43  were  found  in  Pit  3,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  44  (1260,  1193,  911),  45  (1261),  46  (1087,  1550,  1088),  47  (1583,  1551,  1255),  48  .(1259,  1691,  1072),  49  (1254, 
1673,  1258),  50  (910,  762,  1369),  and  51  (851,  1218,  1857).  Points  and  bow-shaped  parts  of  hooks 
for  fishing-lines.  For  a  detailed  description  of  such  a  hook  see  text-figure  58.  These  specimens  were 
found  at  the  following  sites:  Ukix,  Umnak,  1254,  1255,  1257,  1258,  .1259,  .1260,  1261,  1278,  1193, 
1367,  1691;  Uglu'dax',  Umnak,  1550,  1551,  1583;  Agla'gax',  Umnak,  1072  (found  in  Pit  2,  in  the  lowest 
layer  of  kitchen  refuse),  1087  and  1088  (m  Pit  3),  1673;  Atka  Island,  at  Atxa'lax',  762,  910  and  911 
(in  Cave  2,  at  a  depth  of  2.8  meters)  ;  Hala'ca,  851. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  25 


11'  '  k-fW 

$1  mm  1  '•  % 

■  M  |9 

?  '  •  j  * 

'  im 

f.AW  tr 

i 1  A 

Bone  points  for  throwing-implements,  foreshafts  of  bow-arrows,  sections  of  fish-hooks  and  other  hone  implements. 

About  two-fifths  natural  size. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


87 


In  text-figure  58,  A  (1088)  and  B  (1550)  represent  two  parts  of  a  bone  hook  for 
a  fishing-line:  A,  the  bow-shaped  section  ( u'mxix '),  and  B,  the  curved  point  (qix) ; 
C  shows  the  hook  in  natural  size.32  For  catching  fish  of  smaller  size,  the  hooks  were 
of  smaller  size,  as  shown  on  plate  25. 

Text-figure  59  A  ( 1 529)  and  B  ( 1954)  •  For  catching  small  fish  in  shallow  water, 
there  were  simple  hooks  of  one  piece  of  bone  (duxta'dax*) .  A  shows  such  a  hook 

{Text  continued  on  p.  89.) 


Description  of  Plate  26. 

Fig.  1  (1676).  A  bone  pick  for  digging  edible  roots  ( igu’lax '  or  caxu’six i.  e.,  that  with  which  one  digs). 

Figs.  2  (2016),  3  (1458),  4  (568),  5  (1460),  6  (1409),  7  (665),  8  (892).  Whalebone  wedges  made  with  stone 
adzes.  The  bone  wedge  was  a  very  important  implement  in  the  prehistoric  life  of  the  Aleut.  With 
the  wedge  the  Aleut  split  driftwood  logs  for  various  household  uses.  Stone  adzes  or  small  axes 
were  used  only  to  notch  the  wood,  but  not  to  split  it.  The  scratches  on  the  wedges  and  their 
ruggedness  were  intentional,  so  that  they  might  not  slip  from  the  split  log.  On  the  upper  ends  of 
the  wedges  may  be  seen  the  marks  of  stone  hammers.  Throughout  the  excavations  were  found  a 
great  number  of  bone  wedges.  Only  100  were  removed.  Figure  2  was  found  in  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax ; 
figures  3  and  5,  at  Ukix,  Urnnak  Island;  figure  4,  in  Sin,  Attu  Island;  6,  at  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island; 
7  and  8,  in  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island ;  figure  7,  in  Cave  2,  and  figure  8  in  Cave  1,  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  9  (340).  Bone  club  {sagiyagu' six  in  Attu  and  a'nnax *  in  the  eastern  dialect)  for  killing  small  sea  mammals, 
like  seals,  sea-otters,  and  fur-seals,  when  the  hunter  is  drawing  them  toward  himself  with  the 
line  of  a  harpoon  after  striking  the  animal  with  the  barbed  head.  Large  fish,  like  halibut  and  cod, 
caught  by  a  hook  were  also  clubbed  with  the  a'nnax '.  Found  in  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

32  A  similar  fish-hook  made  of  2  slightly  curved  pieces  of  bone  pointed  at  each  end  and  firmly  tied  together 
at  the  lower  end  was  found  at  San  Miguel  Island,  California.  (See  G.  G.  Heye,  Certain  Artifacts  from  San 
Miguel  Island,  California,  p.  84,  fig.  10,  Indian  Notes  and  Monographs,  Museum  of  the  American  Indian,  vol.  7, 
No.  4,  New  York,  1921,  and  St.  Bowers,  Fish-hooks  from  southern  California,  Science,  Cambridge,  Massachu¬ 
setts,  1883,  p.  575.) 


7 


88 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Description  of  Plate  26  ( Continued ) 

Fig.  10  (1558).  Spoon  ( atgu'six ')  of  reindeer  antler.  Reindeer  antlers  were  brought  to  the  islands  west  of 
Unimak  from  Unimak  Island,  Shumagin  Islands,  or  the  Alaskan  peninsula.  Found  in  Uglu'dax', 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  11  (1632).  Fragment  of  an  unknown  implement,  evidently  a  bone  handle  for  a  stone  knife  or  dagger.  From 
Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  12  (336) .  Rounded  piece  of  bone  which  might  serve  as  a  club  to  stun  small  fish  like  salmon  or  to  break  echini 
shells.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  13  (343).  Piece  of  a  rib  of  a  small  whale  of  which  a  pick  for  root  digging  was  being  made.  From  Nani'kax', 
Attu  Island. 

Fig.  14  (207).  Fragment  of  a  pick.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  15  (156).  Club  of  a  whale’s  rib  with  broken  ends.  From  Hog  Island. 

Fig.  16  (639).  Long,  thin  foreshaft  of  a  simple  harpoon  ( ayukda'x ')  for  hunting  sea-otters.  From  Cave  2, 

Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  17  (484).  Bone  shovel  (Attu  dialect,  kilta'sim  canayuci' ;  in  the  eastern  dialect,  katmu'sim  canaducl ’)  for 

putting  a  boot  stretcher  into  footwear  for  drying  after  sewing.  Skins  or  leather  are  moistened 

before  sewing.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  18  (1236).  Spoon  ( atgu'six ')  of  reindeer  antler.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  19  (352).  Spoon  with  a  handle  (ablula' six' ,  i.  e.,  that  by  which  one  draws  up)  found  in  the  upper  layer  at 
Sin,  Attu  Island.  Evidently  made  after  the  advent  of  the  Russians. 

Fig.  20  (1559).  Spoon  made  of  the  breastbone  of  an  urile.  Two  holes  show  that  it  was  attached  to  some  kind 
of  a  handle.  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  21  (474).  Fragment  of  a  bone  slab  with  round  perforations  and  scratches  over  the  whole  surface,  possibly 
a  woman’s  tailoring  board.  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  22  (208).  A  bone  skin-scraper.  It  is  called  a'ngim-camtasV .  Found  at  Sin,  Attu  Island.  On  Atka  Island 
this  implement  is  called  qitqi'six '. 

Fig.  23  (1091).  A  peg-topped-shaped  bone  object  with  cross-like  figures  engraved  on  one  side,  from  Pit  3, 
Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  24  (1201).  A  bone  handle  for  an  engraver  on  stone.  On  one  side  the  handle  has  a  sharpened  point  which 
could  serve  as  an  awl.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  25  (500).  The  blunted  head  of  a  throwing- weapon  for  practice  in  casting.  It  is  made  of  a  sea-lion’s  tooth. 
From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  26  (1355).  A  whale-bone  handle  similar  to  figure  24.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  27  (272).  The  head-piece  of  a  drill  for  making  fires  and  drilling  holes.  It  is  called  ci' xtim-umusV ,  i.  e.,  the 
squeezer  of  the  drill,  from  ci'xtix ',  drill,  and  umu'six ',  implement  for  squeezing.  It  is  made  of  a 
whale’s  tooth  called  ayigi'gix '.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  28.  Half  of  an  implement  used  in  sewing.  Both  halves  which  may  be  called  a  presser  are  loosely  tied  around 
the  middle,  which  is  attached  by  a  string  0.25  meter  long  to  the  top  of  a  carved  small  upright 
post  0.5  meter  high.  The  post  is  firmly  fastened  to  a  board,  usually  painted  and  carved,  on  which 
the  woman  sewing  sits  in  a  squatting  position  and  which  she  presses  down  with  her  foot.  The 
material  to  be  sewed  is  placed  in  the  squeezer  on  one  side  and  at  the  other  is  inserted  a  bone  wedge 
so  that  it  is  held  fast.  When  it  is  thus  tightened,  the  woman  can  hold  the  free  end  with  her  left 
hand  and  continue  to  sew.  The  whole  stand  is  called  ka'xsix '  or  ciyu'six '  in  the  Attu  dialect,  in  the 
eastern  dialect,  qi'qsix and  the  squeezer  is  called  ka' xsim-agalu' ,  or  ciyu'sim  agatu' ,  i.  e.,  the  tooth 
of  the  implement,  ka'xsix '  or  ciyu'six '.  Found  in  the  course  of  excavations  at  Sarana  Bay,  Attu 
Island.  As  a  similar  appliance  used  in  sewing,  called  shveika,  was  known  to  the  old-time  Russians 
there  is  a  possibility  that  it  was  adopted  from  them. 

Figs.  29  (694),  30  (695).  Two  unfinished  heads  for  throwing-lances  (iduga'yax') .  They  were  cast  at  sea-lions 
when  in  their  rookeries  and  were  approached  from  the  sea  in  order  to  prevent  their  escape  into  the 
water.  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Figs.  31  and  33  (1150)  A  and  B.  Two  halves  of  a  belt  of  a  throwing-lance  for  war  ( igi'qam  tumu'kix )  into 
which  the  head  was  inserted  (see  above,  pp.  82,  83).  Length  88  mm.  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  32  (93S).  Evidently  the  foreshaft  of  a  bird-dart  with  sockets  for  4  circular  prongs.  From  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax', 
Atka  Island. 

Fig.  34  (1239).  The  bone  foreshaft  ( tumga'kix )  of  a  simple  harpoon  for  hunting  fur-seals  and  sea-otters.  The 
harpoon  is  called  tunumu'lgux '.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island.  The  figure  is  shown  on  the  plate  in 
reverse  position. 

Fig.  35  (223).  Bone  knife  for  scraping  guts  (see  fig.  22).  Sarana  Bay,  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  36  (1441).  Bone  shovel  ( adgu'six '  or  asu'gasix ',  i.  e.,  a  pit-digger).  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  37  (339).  A  pick  ( igu'lax ')  for  digging  edible  roots.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Figs.  38  (1238)  and  39  (1167).  Two  fish-spear  heads.  The  bones  were  much  decayed. 

Fig.  40  (210).  Half  a  bone  belt  for  war  throwing-lance.  (See  figs.  31  and  33.)  From  Tanaxta'xax',  Amaknax  Id. 

Fig.  41  (234).  A  fragment  of  a  spoon  made  of  a  whale’s  bone.  Sarana  Bay,  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  42  (1021).  Foreshaft  of  a  small  harpoon  used  in  hunting  sea-otters.  The  narrower  part  was  set  in  the  shaft. 
Length  114  mm.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  43  (1169).  Fragment  of  small  harpoon  called  ayukda'x '.  This  specimen  is  unusually  short.  Ukix,  Umnak  Id. 

Fig.  44  (1924).  Fragment  of  a  pick  for  digging  edible  roots.  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  26 


Bone  spoons,  wedges,  root-diggers,  and  other  bone  implements.  About  two-sevenths  natural  size. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


89 


found  in  Pit  i,  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island,  at  a  depth  of  3  feet;  B  is  a  piece  of  bone  in 
the  process  of  manufacturing  a  hook.  From  Amaknax,  Amaknax  Island. 

Both  sections  of  this  fish-hook  were  found  in  the  excavations  on  all  the  islands. 
At  present  the  Aleut  use  imported  American  iron  fish-hooks  and  the  Aleut  of  Atka 
and  Attu  were  unable  to  explain  the  use  of  these  bones.  They  were  confused  by  the 
sight  of  a  curved  arrow-point  “  which  is  not  available  ”  for  casting  weapons  of 
bows.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  this  fish-hook  was  in  use  long  after  the 
coming  of  the  Russians  and  shows  how  easily  and  rapidly  the  use  of  an  implement 
may  vanish  from  the  memory  of  a  people  when  a  more  convenient  implement  is 
substituted.30  It  is  of  interest  to  point  out  that  Doctor  Dali  found  similar  sections 
of  fishing  implements  but  could  obtain  no  information  as  to  their  use.  Bone  hooks 
found  in  a  cave  on  Kagam-Ilan  Island  are  illustrated  in  one  of  his  works.31 

It  was  only  on  Umnak  Island  that  we  learned  that  these  bone  objects  are  parts 
of  fish-hooks.  Although  the  people  on  Umnak  now  use  only  imported  iron  hooks, 
the  old  people  still  remember  the  use  of  the  composite  bone  hooks.  A  was  found  in 
Pit  3,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island;  B  at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island;  C  (1693)  is  a  repre¬ 
sentation  of  the  compound  fish-hook.  The  implement  was  made  on  Umnak  Island 
by  Boris  Besyazykov.  Like  every  other  fishing-implement,  the  hook  was  called 
qanaga' six' ;  but  it  had  a  special  name,  u'xtcix or  a  more  ancient  one,  aqa'nax \ 
U'xtax '  or  aqa'nax '  consisted  of  the  following  sections : 

(1)  U'mxix \  a  curved  long  bone  of  the  hook  made  of  a  sea-lion’s  tooth. 

(2)  Qix  or  qi'gix',  a  curved  point  of  the  hook,  made  also  of  a  sea  lion’s  tooth. 

(3)  I'hklux '  or  aka'gdax',  the  line,  plaited  of  several  sinew  threads. 

(4)  Umqilgagu'six' ,  a  sinew  thread  for  attaching  bait. 

(5)  Antami' kux' ,  a  small  root  of  a  plant  called  ami'dux'  which  was  tied  to  the  hook  and  which,  according  to 

the  beliefs  of  the  Aleut,  attracted  fish  to  it,  particularly  halibut.  The  root  was  first  wrapped  in 
birchbark  (siti’knax') . 

(6)  A'kax',  a  bird-quill  covering  the  lashing  of  sinew  threads  which  bound  parts  i  and  2,  in  order  that  the  fish 

teeth  may  not  spoil  the  lashing. 

(7)  U'xtam  tutusl'  ( i .  e.,  the  ear  of  the  fish-hook)  a  folded  piece  of  urile  quill,  which  is  tied  to  the  hook  from- 

the  side,  to  which  the  end  of  the  thread  is  attached  by  which  the  bait  is  fastened  to  the  u'mxix. 

(8)  U'xtam  agiti'hin  ( i .  e.,  the  bindings  of  the  u'xtax '),  sinew  threads  by  which  parts  1  and  2,  3  and  1  are 

fastened.  Pieces  of  birch-bark  are  put  under  the  threads  in  order  that  the  threads  may  not  glide  on 
the  smooth  bone  surface.. 

The  following  text-figures  belong  with  plate  26: 

Fig.  60  a-b  (1241).  A  bone  skin-scraper.  It  is  of  walrus  ivory  ornamented  with  notches,  which  are  also  intended 
to  give  the  implement  a  firm  hold.  Both  sides  are  shown  in  the  figure.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 
Fig.  61  (450).  Fragment  of  a  back-scratcher  ( iblaga'six in  the  eastern  dialect  imlaga' six' ,  i.  e.,  scratcher).  It 
was  tied  to  a  stick  in  order  to  shove  it  along  the  back  under  the  clothing.  On  Umnak  Island  this 
implement  was  called  qaku'qix '.  From  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  62  (471).  Piece  of  a  bone  comb  made  of  a  whale’s  tooth.  Found  in  the  upper  layer  of  kitchen  refuse  in 
Nani'kax',  Attu  Island.  This  is  evidently  an  imitation  of  imported  Russian  combs.  Old  people  on 
Atka  Island  have  stated  that  the  ancient  Aleut  combed  their  hair  with  a  wing  of  the  urile,  the 
feathers  of  which  are  very  hard. 

Fig.  63  (1280).  Fragment  of  a  comb  (it xu' six')  found  at  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  64  (2124).  A  back-scratcher  made  of  a  whale-killer’s  tooth  (see  fig.  61).  From  Tanaxta'xax',  Amaknax 
Island. 

30  Another  example  of  how  peoples  with  no  written  records  may  lose  all  knowledge  of  a  custom  is  that 
of  some  of  the  Siberian  tribes,  who  since  their  acquaintance  with  metal  vessels  have  lost  all  memory  of  their 
ancestral  pottery  making. 

31  See  W.  H.  Dali,  Remains  of  later  prehistoric  man  from  the  caves  of  the  Aleutian  Island  (Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge,  Washington,  1878).  On  plate  10,  figure  17260,  a  to  c,  are  shown  3  points  (qix). 
In  the  text  Doctor  Dali  suggests  that  “  they  might  have  been  used  in  some  way  connected  with  sewing  work.” 
He  also  says:  “Three  curious  implements  (17260,  a  to  c),  2  of  them  an  inch  long,  and  the  other,  2.5  inches 
long,  made  of  ivory.  I  have  never  seen  anything  like  these  elsewhere.  They  are  shaped  like  a  small  arrow-head 
with  the  point  curved  to  one  side”  (p.  23). 


90 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Fig.  65  (1102).  Bone  mouthpiece  for  a  bladder,  used  to  keep  fresh  water  in  the  skin  boat.  The  bladder  was  made 
of  the  s.tomach  of  a  two-year-old  sea-lion.  One  end  of  the  mouthpiece,  called  uma'lux ',  was  inserted 
in  the  bladder  and  lashed  by  a  sinew  thread,  and  the  other  was  covered  by  a  stopper.  At  present 
the  Aleut  carry  fresh  water  in  their  boats  in  small  wooden  kegs  or  flasks.  Found  at  Natxu'kax' 
on  Umnak  Island,  in  Pit  2,  where  6  skeletons  were  discovered. 


Description  of  Plate  27. 

Fig.  1  (1417).  A  large  bone  wedge  ( an-gu'qax )  used  for  splitting  logs.  From  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  2  (1917),  3  (1401),  4  (444),  S  (1402),  6  (939),  7  (980),  and  9  (1920)  represent  wedges,  called  qu'xsux\S5 
In  some  places  these  are  called  una'qax ',  i.  e.,  splitter,  or  cagya'six ',  i.  e.,  wood-working  implements. 
Figures  2  and  9  were  found  at  Amaknax  on  Amaknax  Island;  figures  3,  5,  and  7,  at  Agla'gax', 
Umnak  Island;  figure  4  at  Nani'kax',  on  Attu  Island;  figure  6,  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 
Figures  2,  3,  4,  5  and  9  served  also  as  head  pieces  ( qitqu'yax ')  for  drills  (igda'kax*) . 

Fig.  8  (846).  A  piece  of  whalebone  which  had  evidently  served  as  an  ax  or  chopping-knife  for  edible  plants. 

The  median  groove  for  attaching  to  a  haft  was  made  with  a  stone  ax.  From  Hala'ca,  Atka  Island. 

Figs.  10  (1105),  11  (1914),  12  (2045),  14  (991),  and  15  (1576).  Bone  awls  made  of  the  wing-bones  of  alba¬ 
trosses.  These  specimens  were  found  at  the  following  sites:  Figure  10  at  Natxu'kax',  Umnak 
Island;  figure  11,  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island;  figure  14  at  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island;  figure  15 
at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  13  (755).  Bone  knife  ( u'tax ';  u'tax '  means  also  thumb)  for  removing  pieces  of  meat  from  guts  before 
dressing.  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  16  (1106).  Awl  made  of  the  wing-bone  of  an  eagle  with  notches  to  assist  in  holding  securely.  From 
Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  17  (451),  18  (1350),  19  (448),  20  (899),  21  (1561),  22  (986),  23  (2040),  24  (429),  25  (1349),  26  (1175), 
27  (1351),  28  (658),  and  29  (catalogue  No.  not  given)  represent  heads  of  a  compound  harpoon 
(akagu' six) .  Figure  17  is  unfinished,  and  figure  26  is  evidently  a  fragment  of  an  unfinished  head. 
Figure  27  reminds  one  of  an  unfinished  qacagi'lux ',  i.  e.,  a  bone,  usually  of  the  shape  of  a  sea-otter, 
which  is  fastened  to  the  side  of  the  skin  boat  to  prevent  the  paddle  from  falling  when  it  is  laid  on 
top  of  the  skin  boat  instead  of  a  special  noose  in  front  of  the  hatch.  This  specimen  was  found  in 
Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island;  figures  18,  25,  26,  and  27  at  Ukix,  Umnak  Island;  figures  17,  19,  and 
24  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island ;  figure  20  in  Hala'ca,  Atka  Island ;  figure  21  in  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island ; 
figure  22  at  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island;  figure  23  at  Xata'cxan,  Amaknak  Island.  The  variety  in  the 
sizes  of  these  heads  point  to  the  fact  that  harpoons  were  not  of  uniform  size,  but  were  in  accord 
rather  with  the  size  of  the  animal  to  be  hunted. 


35  See  plate  26. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  27 


Bone  wedges,  drill -heads,  and  a  bone  adze.  2.  Bone  awls  and  a  knife.  About  three-fifths  natural  size.  3.  Bone  harpoon-heads.  About  one-half  natural  size. 

About  one-third  natural  size. 


r;r  7  ?  ainan 


■ 

■ 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


91 


The  same  kind  of  bone  mouthpieces,  but  somewhat  shorter,  are  used  by  Eskimo 
as  mouthpieces  of  seal-floats  in  hunting  sea  mammals.33  In  olden  times  the  Aleut 
also  used  seal  floats  in  hunting. 


Stomachs  or  bladders  of  reindeer,  seal,  white  whale,  or  walrus,  provided  with 
mouthpieces  and  stoppers,  are  used  for  carrying  water  or  seal  oil  by  the  Bering 
Strait  Eskimo.34 


The  following  text-figures  should  be  considered  with  plate  28: 

Fig.  66  (1560).  A  piece  of  albatross  humerus  with  a  longitudinal  groove  made  with  a  stone  knife  demonstrating 
the  method  of  splitting  bone  for  making  needles  and  awls.  Found  in  Pit  i,  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 


Fig.  67  a  to  h.  a  (919)  and  b  (426).  Needles  ( alu'six ',  i.  e.,  implement  for  sewing),  a  was  found  in  Cave  2, 
Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island ;  b  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island.  Ancient  Aleut  bone  needles  had  no  perforations ; 
the  thread  was  tied  to  a  notch  in  the  upper  end.  c  (1281).  A  flat  point  made  of  a  bird’s  breast  bone. 
The  Aleut  suggested  that  it  was  a  point  for  a  fish-spear  used  by  children  to  catch  trout.  Found  at 
Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  d  (1093).  An  awl  found  in  Pit  3,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island,  e  (836).  A  tooth¬ 
pick  (cimcili1 six') .  From  Hala'ca,  Atka  Island,  f  (1530).  A  small  awl  made  of  the  leg-bone  of  a 
sea-parrot.  From  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island,  g  (934)  and  h  (1251).  Unfinished  points  of  hooks  for 
fishing  sculpins,  without  barbs,  g  was  found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island,  and  h  at  Ukix, 
Umnak  Island. 


33  Franz  Boas,  Central  Eskimo,  p.  493 ;  Eskimo  of  Baffin  Land  and  Hudson  Bay,  p.  428. 

34  E.  W.  Nelson,  The  Eskimo  about  Bering  Strait ,  p.  73,  and  plate  XXXIII,  fig.  10. 


92 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Of  throwing-weapons,  war-lances  were  particularly  ornamented.  The  names 
for  ornamental  figures  on  such  lances  have  been  noted  previously  (p.  83). 


Fig.  68. — Fragment  of  bone  head  for  a  throwing-lance. 

Fig.  69. — Fragments  of  bone  haft  for  stone  knife,  both  sides. 

Fig.  70. — Two  blunt-shaped  heads  of  casting-lances  for  drilling. 

Fig.  71. — Fragment  of  a  bone  haft  (783),  found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 


Description  of  Plate  28. 

Figs,  i  (1103),  2  (1575),  3  (1320),  4  (1578),  5  (421),  and  6  (1326).  Awls  ( axsila'six ')  made  of  the  wing-bones 
of  uriles.  Figures  1  and  6  were  found  at  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island;  figures  2  and  4  at  Uglu'dax', 
Umnak  Island;  figure  3  at  Agla'gax',  Umnak;  and  figure  5  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Figs.  7  (1330),  8  (1043),  9  (937),  10  (913),  11  (1331)  and  12  (912).  Bone  chisels  ( qada'nix )  for  working  wood, 
especially  for  making  grooves  and  perforations  in  wood ;  for  instance,  the  grooves  and  cavities  on 
throwing-boards.  These  are  all  made  of  the  wing-bones  of  uriles.  Figures  7,  8,  and  U  were  found 
at  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island;  figures  9,  10,  and  12  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Figs.  13  (1581)  and  14  (2047).  Awls.  Figure  13  was  found  in  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island,  and  figure  14  at  Xata'c- 
xan,  Amaknax  Island. 

Figs.  15  (276),  17  (438)  and  20  (437).  Awls  used  for  splitting  sinew  into  thread  ( iga'cim  caglimaga' ca) .  The 
perforation  in  the  middle  of  the  implement  was  made  so  that  it  could  be  hung  on  a  thread  from  the 
left  wrist.  For  use  the  implement  was  manipulated  with  the  right  hand.  With  this  awl  as  well  as 
with  the  type  called  axsila'six '  perforations  were  made  preparatory  to  sewing.  These  three  awls 
were  made  of  the  wing-bones  of  albatrosses  and  were  found  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Figs.  16  (6800)  and  18  (680b).  Split  sections  of  bone  used  for  making  needles.  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax', 
Atka  Island. 

Fig.  21  (1020).  Bone  needle  ( cunku'six ')  used  in  sewing  the  cover  of  a  skin  boat  to  the  rails  of  its  frame. 
Length  98  mm.  Found  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Figs.  22  (920),  23  (922),  24  (1571),  25  (645),  26  (924),  2 7  (1251),  28  (422),  29  (923),  30  (1041),  31  (918), 
32  (1250),  33  (647),  34  (77i),  35  (921),  36  (916)  and  37  (917).  Thin  bone  awls  ( axsila'six '  or 
si'lax ';  in  the  Attu  dialect,  isila'six).  Figures  22,  23,  25,  26,  27,  31  and  33-37  were  found  in  Cave  2, 
Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island ;  figure  24  at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island ;  figures  27  and  32  at  Ukix,  Umnak 
Island;  figure  28  at  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island;  figure  30  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 


JOCHELSON 


PLATE  28 


A.  Bone  awls  and  chisels.  About  one-half  natural  size. 

B.  Bone  awls  and  needles.  About  three-fourths  natural  size. 

C.  Bone  awls.  About  one-half  natural  size. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


93 


ORNAMENTATION  OF  BONE  IMPLEMENTS. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  bone  objects  secured  were  ornamented  with  geome¬ 
trical  designs  formed  by  symmetrically-arranged  notches,  lines,  dots,  and  circles. 
In  many  cases  notches  or  lines  appeared,  not  as  decorations  ( anagna' sin) ,  but  as 
property-marks  (ana' fix').  In  some  cases  possibly  the  geometrical  patterns  had  some 
magical  significance.  Irregular  incised  lines  and  scratches  were  often  made  to  meet 
a  practical  end :  to  prevent  the  smooth  bone  implement  from  slipping  from  the  hand. 
Ornamental  lines,  dots,  and  circles  were  engraved  on  the  flat  or  curved  surface  of 
bone  implements  with  the  points  of  small  stone  knives  or  with  lancets  used  by  the 
old  Aleut  medicine  men.  The  engraved  grooves  were  filled  with  black,  red,  or  other 
mineral  paint. 

On  the  bone  implements  of  the  present-day  Aleut  may  be  seen  ornamentation 
consisting  of  engraved  and  colored  figures  of  animals,  mostly  aquatic,  birds,  and 
other  realistic  motives.  No  realistic  decorations  were  noted  on  bone  objects  secured 
in  the  course  of  excavation,  but  realistic  designs  in  very  low  relief,  as  well  as  the 
paint,  may  have  been  rubbed  off  in  contact  with  the  earth.  Geometric  ornamenta¬ 
tion  also  was  not  entirely  preserved.  Nevertheless,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  on 
no  one  of  the  bone  objects  obtained  from  the  excavations  were  traces  of  realistic, 
patterns  found. 

The  bone,  figure  68  (687),  is  much  decayed.  The  ornamentation  consists  of 
5  longitudinal  parallel  lines  incised  in  the  middle  with  2  rows  of  alternating  points 
located  between  the  inner  parallel  lines.  At  the  sides,  parallel  lines  formed  sharp 
angles  with  the  longitudinal  lines,  though  at  the  left,  these  horizontal  lines  had 
been  rubbed  off.  The  side  lines  may  represent  the  flippers  of  a  sea  mammal  and  the 
longitudinal  lines  with  dots  may  represent  the  spinal  column  and  vertebrae.  A  simi¬ 
lar  symbolic  representation  of  human  figures  is  met  with  in  the  love-letters  of  the 
present-day  Yukaghir,  which  are  incised  on  birch-bark  and  in  which  parallel  lines 
and  dots  represent  the  human  spine.36  It  should  be  added,  however,  that  such  a 
conventional  interpretation  of  ornamentation  should  be  regarded  merely  as  hypo¬ 
thetical,  particularly  since  the  engravings  and  carvings  of  the  present  Aleut  repre¬ 
sent  naturalistic  motives.  Found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Obverse  and  reverse  of  fragment  of  a  bone  haft  for  a  stone  knife  is  shown  in 
text-figure  69  (1114)  A  to  B.  On  A  we  see  traces  of  a  socket  to  receive  the  rounded 
tang  of  the  knife.  Under  the  socket  is  a  notch  for  the  sinew  thread  by  which  the 
end  of  the  haft  and  the  stem  of  the  knife  were  lashed  together.  At  some  points  in  B 
may  be  seen  traces  of  engraved  decoration,  representing  2  motives;  rhomboidal 
lozenges  and  circular  punch  marks.  Found  at  Natxu'kax',  Umnak  Island. 

Two  blunt-shaped  heads  for  throwing-weapons  are  shown  in  figure  joA  (500) 
and  B  (619),  with  which  young  boys  practiced  casting  lances.  The  heads  were  of 
sea-lion’s  teeth  and  had  sockets  to  receive  the  wooden  shaft.  The  throwing-weapon 
for  drilling  was  called  ugalu'dax '  and  the  head  ugalu' dam-kada' .  Both  heads  are 

36  W.  Jochelson,  The  Yukaghir,  part  III,  Material  Culture  (Memoirs,  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Vol.  IX,  in  press). 


94 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


decorated  with  circular  dots,  painted  black  and  red  ;  on  B  there  is  also  a  property 
mark  in  the  shape  of  a  cross  and  a  circular  groove  in  the  middle.  A  was  found  at 
Nani'kax',  Attu  Island,  and  B  in  Cave  i,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 


Fig.  72. — A  to  C  (A,  777,  B,  778,  C,  779).  Fragments  of  the  lower  ends  of  bone  heads 
of  throwing-lances  bearing  traces  of  lineal  and  notched  decoration.  Found  in  Cave  2, 
Atxa'lax’,  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  73  (782). — Fragment  of  a  decorated  bone  haft  of  a  stone  knife.  Found  in  Cave  2, 
Atxa'lax’,  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  74. — A  (1018)  and  B  (1113).  A,  piece  of  a  wing-bone  of  an  urile  which  had 
evidently  served  as  a  haft  for  a  stone  chisel.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax’,  Umnak  Island. 
B,  Notched  piece  of  a  bird-wing  with  the  point  broken  off.  It  had  evidently  served 
as  an  awl.  From  Natxu'kax’,  Umnak  Island. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


95 


Fig.  75. — A,  B.  Ivory  mouthpieces  ( uma'lux ',  from  u'ma,  to  blow)  for  bladdered 
harpoons  (ayasa'qax') .37  A  (1198)  is  decorated  with  notches,  and  B  bears  the 
carving  of  the  head  of  some  animal.  From  Ukix,  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  76. —  (760).  Bone  handle  probably  for  drum,  decorated  with  a  carved  fox-paw.38 
Found  in  the  layer  containing  skeletal  remains  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  77. —  (425).  Bone  carving  representing  a  fish.  It  may  have  served  as  a  toy  or 
amulet.  From  the  middle  of  the  section  in  Pit  4,  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  78. —  (1119)-  Unfinished  carving  representing  a  sea  animal.  From  Natxu'kax', 
Umnak  Island. 


SO 


Fig.  79. — A  (983)  and  B  (1059).  Amulets  (kadga'dax') , 
the  rudely  carved  human  figures  in  stone,  also  used  in 
divination.  A  is  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff ;  B  is  of  slate. 
Both  figures  were  found  on  Umnak  Island;  A  at  Agla'- 
gax'  and  B  in  Natxu'kax'. 

Fig.  80. —  (1001).  Figure  of  a  whale  of  volcanic  andesitic 
tuff.  It  also  served  as  an  amulet,  like  the  figures  of  men. 
Found  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 


Fig.  81. — A  and  B  (1036).  Front  and  side  views  of  a  fragment  of  a  head  of  a  war- 
harpoon.  The  face  is  turned  toward  the  shaft.  From  Pit  2,  Agla'gax,  Umnak  Island. 
Fig.  82. — A  (1037)  and  B  (1038).  Two  fragments  of  bone  heads  with  carved  human 
faces  facing  the  point.  Found  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 


A  rudely  carved  human  face  was  found  on  many  fragments  of  the  bone  sec¬ 
tions  of  casting-weapons.  Evidently  these  faces  were  intended  as  guardians  of 
the  weapons  and  to  help  them  in  striking  the  animal.  The  following  are  figures  of 
this  character: 

A  bone  harpoon-head  (fig.  83  (1242)  A  to  C )  much  decayed.  Two  barbs  have  fallen  off.  A  shows  the 
flat  side  of  the  head;  B  is  a  side  view  with  a  carved  human  face  facing  in  the  direction  of  the  point;  C,  a 
barb  hollowed  out  inside,  with  three  sharp  points  which  became  blunted  during  burial.  A  head  with  such 
barbs  can  not  be  removed  from  a  wound.  Such  a  head  was  used  with  war  throwing-lances,  as  well  as  with 
throwing-spears  when  hunting  seals  and  sea-lions  asleep  ashore. 


37  For  similar  mouthpieces,  see  E.  W.  Nelson,  The  Eskimo  about  Bering  Strait,  plate  LVI,  and  John 
Murdoch,  The  Point  Barrow  Eskimo,  fig.  202,  p.  215. 

38  For  similar  drum  handles  see  Murdoch,  The  Point  Barrow  Eskimo,  pp.  386,  387.  The  notch  is  to  secure 
the  handle  to  the  rim  of  the  drum,  but  there  are  no  holes,  as  in  Murdoch’s  specimens,  for  attaching  the  handle. 
Murdoch’s  handles  have  carved  human  or  animal  faces. 


96 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands 


Labrets. 

The  ancient  Aleut  painted  their  faces  and  wore  labrets  and  ear  ornaments. 
Labrets  and  other  stone  and  bone  ornaments  were  worn  by  the  Aleut  in  holes  made 
in  the  lips,  nasal  cartilage,  cheeks,  and  ears.  In  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  lower 
lip  the  Aleut  inserted  a  labret  in  the  form  of  a  skin  boat,  grooved  all  around  to  keep 

( Text  continued  on  p.  99.) 


side;  b,  side  view;  c,  a  barb. 

Fig.  84. —  (954).  Marble  labret  with  a  chess-like  decoration  in  front.  Found  about  2 
meters  deep  on  a  skeleton  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  85. —  (1521).  Oval  marble  labret,  smoothly  polished.  A  piece  has  been  broken  off. 
Found  in  Pit  1,  at  a  depth  of  3.1  meters,  in  the  lower  layer  of  sea  urchins,  at 
Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  86. — (1300).  Fragment  of  a  marble  labret  found  at  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island.  It  is 
interesting  because  of  its  resemblance  in  shape  to  bone  labrets  collected  by  Murdoch 
among  the  Eskimo  at  Point  Barrow.39 

Fig.  87. —  (997).  Bone  labret  of  the  same  shape  as  the  preceding  stone  labret.  Found  in 
Pit  2,  in  the  same  layer  as  figure  82,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 


39  John  Murdoch,  Ethnological  Results  of  the  Point  Barrow  Expedition  (Ninth  Annual  Report,  Bureau 
of  Ethnology,  Washington,  1892,  p.  148,  fig.  96). 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


97 


89  A 


89  B 


Fig.  88. —  (624).  Large  marble  labret  ( kuli'tax ')  found  in  Cave  2,  Atxa’lax',  Atka 
Island,  in  the  layer  of  skeletal  remains.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  engraved  ornament 
on  the  front  surface  of  the  labret  is  quite  similar  to  that  on  figure  84  found  on 
Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  89. — A  (625)  and  B  (626).  Two  large  bone  labrets,  found  in  the  layer  of  skeletal 
remains  in  Cave  2,  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  90. — A  (1135)  and  B  (2076).  Bone  labrets,  larger  than  those  shown  in  figure  89. 
A  was  found  at  Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  and  B  at  Xata'cxan,  Amaknax  Island,  at  a 
depth  of  13  feet. 

Fig.  91. — '(2107).  Oblong  bowlder  of  volcanic  andesitic  tuff  with  an  artificial  groove 
all  around  the  stone.  Judging  from  its  shape  as  well  as  from  its  material,  it  could 
scarcely  have  served  as  a  labret.  It  may  rather  be  a  shaft  straightener  for  throwing 
weapons. 

Fig.  92. — A  (1195),  B  (1275),  and  C  (1522).  Examples  of  paired  bone  labrets.  A  and  B 
were  found  in  Pit  3,  Ukix,  Umnak  Island,  and  C  in  Pit  1,  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island, 
at  a  depth  of  3.1  meters.  A  and  B  have  the  inner  side  smoothly  excavated  and 
polished  to  fit  the  gum.40 

Fig.  93. — A  (908)  and  B  (909)  bear  some  resemblance  to  paired  labrets,  worn  in  the 
corners  of  the  mouth,  but  according  to  the  explanation  of  the  Umnak  Aleut  these 
are  small  bone  pieces  in  the  form  of  crutches  (canaya'six')  on  which  the  upper  rail 
of  the  frame  of  the  ancient  Aleut  skin  boat  rested  loosely.  This  supplied  a  skin  boat 
with  a  particular  elasticity  and  swiftness.  Stone  and  bone  labrets  were  worn  by  the 
ancient  Aleut  also  in  incisions  of  the  cheeks. 

40  Similar  small  labrets  made  of  white  quartz  are  shown  in  Nelson’s  work  on  the 

Eskimo  about  Bering  Strait  (PI.  XXII,  figs.  19-22). 


98 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


94 


Fig.  94. —  (1739).  Hat-shaped  labret  of  bone. 
It  was  called  ulu'gam  cimitl',  i.  e.,  cheek 
stopper.  Found  at  Uglu'dax',  Umnak 
Island. 

Fig.  95 — (623).  Bone  pin  worn  in  a  per¬ 
foration  of  the  nasal  cartilage  and  called 
qusi'dax '  (in  the  Atka  dialect,  icimi'- 
klux ').  On  both  sides  of  the  pin,  on  the 
ornamented  head  and  in  the  notch  near 
the  point,  were  hung  small  bone  pen¬ 
dants  attached  to  sinew  threads.  These 
bone  pendants  were  usually  seal’s  teeth 
and  dangled  over  the  upper  lip.  These 
pendants  bore  the  very  unesthetic  name 
of  su'klun,  i.  e.,  snots.41  After  the  ad¬ 
vent  of  the  Russians  the  Aleut  made 
suklun  of  beads  strung  on  sinew  threads. 
The  bone  pin  was  found  in  Cave  2, 
in  the  layer  containing  skeletal  remains, 
at  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island. 

Fig.  96. —  (1534).  Type  of  qusi'dax '  in  the 
shape  of  a  figure  8.  It  was  attached 
to  a  perforation  of  the  nasal  cartilage 
by  a  sinew  thread  and  su'klun  hung  from 
both  sides.  Found  in  Pit  4,  at  Uglu’dax', 
Umnak  Island. 


96 


95 


Fig.  97. — A  to  D  (1098  to  1101).  Four  suklun  made  of  seals’  teeth,  bearing  notches 
to  hang  them  to  the  qusi'dax One  of  the  teeth  (1100),  in  addition  to  the  notch, 
bears  a  perforation  made  by  drilling.  All  four  pendants  were  found  in  the  burial 
pit  of  the  skeleton  of  a  woman  and  child,  at  Natxu’kax',  Umnak  Island. 


41  Doctor  Dali  has  reported  that  the  Tananah  Indians  wear  an  ornament  made  of 
dentalium.  A  hole  is  pierced  through  the  skin  of  the  nose,  below  the  cartilage,  in 
infancy.  The  name  of  the  ornament,  sookli,  he  regards  as  a  Russian  word  (see  W.  H. 
Dali,  Alaska  and  its  Resources,  Boston,  1870,  p.  95),  but,  as  we  have  seen  before,  it  is 
an  Aleut  word,  su'klux i.  e.,  snot.  Evidently  the  Russians  of  the  Yukon  region 
adopted  it  from  the  Aleut.  We  wish  to  add,  however,  that  the  Russian  word  for  snot, 
soplya  (plural — sopli)  sounds  like  sookli. 


Archaeological  Remains  from  Kitchen  Middens. 


99 


Fig.  98. —  (1097).  Bone  ear-ring  called  tn'tax '.  On  the  lower  part  of  the  ear-ring  is  the  carved  head  of  a  sea-lion 
and  at  the  sides  it  is  ornamented  with  painted  dots.  It  was  hung  on  a  sinew  thread.  The  Aleut  wore  tu'tan 
(plural  of  tu'tax ')  not  only  in  the  lobe  of  the  ear,  but  all  around  the  ear-shell.  The  soft  edges  of  the  ear- 
shell  were  perforated  and  small  bone  pendants  were  worn  on  sinew  threads,  like  the  pendants  over  the  upper 
lip.  Sea-lions’  whiskers  were  also  worn  in  the  perforations  of  the  ear-shell  and  after  the  advent  of  the 
Russians,  beaded  strings.  Found  in  the  same  pit  as  figure  93. 

Fig.  99. —  (1525).  Nose  pendant  ( su'klux ')  or  ear  pendant  ( tu'tax ')  made  of  an  incisor  of  a  young  sea-lion. 
Found  in  Pit  1,  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  1 00. —  (1191).  Plug  made  of  a  sea-lion’s  tooth  which  had  served  evidently  for  enlarging  the  perforations  for 
labrets.  The  notch  at  the  thicker  end  was  made  to  keep  the  plug  in  the  perforation  for  a  certain  time.  Found 
in  Pit  3,  Ukix,  Umnak  Id. 

Fig.  ioi. —  (3313).  Sea- lion’s  tooth  to  be  used  as  a  pendant,  shown  before  perforation  or  notching.  Found 
together  with  figure  100. 

Fig.  iop. —  (1523).  Bone  object,  too  large  to  be  a  nose  or  ear  pendant;  it  may  possibly  be  a  buckle  for  short 
breeches  or  for  the  breech-cloth  belt.  Found  in  Pit  1,  Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island. 

Fig.  103. — A,  bone  ring ;  B,  stone  ring,  called  uka'mlux '. 

Fig.  104. — A,  B.  Two  uka'mlux '.  A  (971)  consists  of  a  halibut’s  vertebra  and  was  found  in  Pit  1,  Agla'gax', 
Umnak  Island.  B  (1549)  is  made  of  a  vertebra  of  a  small  species  of  shark.  (Description,  see  p.  100.) 

Fig.  105. — (274).  Marble  stopper  ( cimiyu'six ')  for  the  bone  mouthpiece  of  a  bladder  used  for  carrying  fresh 
water  in  skin  boats.  Found  in  Nani'kax',  Attu  Island. 

Fig.  106. — Shell  of  the  mollusk  Tellina  calcar ea,  which  may  possibly  have  been  worn  as  an  ornament.  However, 
as  determined  by  Professor  N.  M.  Knipovich,  the  perforation  was  not  drilled  by  man,  but  was  made  by  a 
carnivorous  snail  of  the  Naticidse  family.  Found  at  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island. 


it  in  the  hole.  Such  a  labret  was  called  kuli'tax\  The  lower  lip  was  pierced  in  child¬ 
hood  and  the  perforation  gradually  enlarged  by  special  plugs.  In  adults  the  per¬ 
foration  of  the  lower  lip  reached  5  or  6  cm.  All  the  stone  kuli'tax  of  the  Aleut 
were  of  marble  which  was  imported,  according  to  information  received  from  them, 
from  the  continent.  Marble  is  easily  cut  and  may  be  well  polished. 

The  labrets  shown  in  figures  84  to  87  were  worn  single  in  an  incision  in  the 
middle  of  the  lower  lip.  In  addition  we  found  similar  labrets,  but  of  such  large  size 


100 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


that  they  could  hardly  be  worn  in  the  lip.  We  believe  the  particularly  large  labrets, 
shown  in  figures  88  to  90,  were  made  to  put  in  the  perforations  of  the  painted  wooden 
masks  which  covered  the  faces  of  the  dead  or  which  were  worn  by  dancers  during 
festivals  or  religious  ceremonies.  The  Aleut  of  Umnak  Island,  who  assisted  in  the 
excavations,  were  of  the  same  opinion.  All  the  labrets  illustrated  here  are  shown  in 
their  natural  size. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  th&t  no  labrets  were  found  in  the  excavation  of  Attu 
Island;  that  the  Attu  people  asserted  that  their  ancestors  did  not  wear  such  orna¬ 
ments,  and  that  the  custom  of  wearing  labrets  was  known  only  to  the  east  islanders. 
The  first  specimens  of  labrets  were  found  on  Atka  Island  and  the  local  Aleut  did 
not  recognize  them.  This  is  another  instance  of  how  easily  a  people  will  forget  an 
old  custom  when  it  is  no  longer  in  use  (see  above  p.  89).  It  is,  therefore,  possible  that 
no  credit  should  be  given  to  the  testimony  of  the  Attu  people.  Detailed  data  as  to 
the  ornaments  for  the  face,  their  names,  and  the  methods  of  wearing  were  obtained 
only  from  the  Umnak  Aleut. 

The  Aleut  had  another  shape  of  labret  which  was  worn  in  pairs,  one  at  each 
corner  of  the  mouth.  These  were  also  called  kuli'tax\  (See  figure  92  A,  B.)  A  hat¬ 
shaped  labret  was  worn  in  incisions  of  the  cheeks.  (See  figure  94.) 

Two  circles  or  rings  (uk a' minx')  (fig.  103,  A,  B)  are  tied  to  one  end  of  the 
cord  of  sutax \  Su'tax '  is  part  of  a  hunter’s  clothing  when  in  the  skin  boat.  It  is  a 
skirt  made  of  seal-guts  about  0.75  meter  long.  The  lower  edge  of  the  su'tax '  is 
tied  around  the  projecting  rim  of  the  hatch  in  which  the  occupant  sits;  the  upper 
edge  is  tightly  drawn  under  the  arm  pits  of  the  hunter,  and  the  ends  of  the  cord, 
one  of  which  is  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder,  may  be  instantly  untied  by  touching 
the  uka'mlux '  on  the  chest  if  there  is  danger  of  capsizing.  When  the  su'tax '  is  tied 
on  both  sides  no  water  can  penetrate  the  interior  of  the  boat.  Under  the  sutax ' 
the  hunter  wears  a  water-proof  shirt,  also  made  of  seal-guts.  This  is  securely  tied 
at  the  wrists  and  the  hood  is  tied  around  the  face.  Doctor  Dali,  in  describing  the 
skin  boat  of  the  Yukon  Inuit,  says  that  the  edge  of  the  water-proof  shirt  itself  is 
tied  to  the  rim  of  the  kayak  hole.42  The  same  is  reported  for  the  Bering  Strait 
Eskimo  by  E.  W.  Nelson 43  and  in  the  guide  to  the  Museum  of  the  American 
Indian.44  A  (273)  is  of  walrus  ivory  and  B  (27 1)  is  of  stone.  Evidently  B  was 
formerly  used  as  a  headpiece  for  a  drill.  In  rotating,  the  drill-stick  pierced  a  hole 
in  the  head-piece,  making  it  unfit  for  drilling.  Both  uka'mlux '  were  found  at  Nani'- 
kax',  Attu  Island. 

42  See  W.  H.  Dali,  Alaska  and  its  Resources,  Boston,  1870,  p.  15. 

43  See  E.  W.  Nelson,  The  Eskimo  about  Bering  Strait,  Washington,  1899,  p.  37. 

44  Guide  to  the  Museum  of  the  American  Indian,  Heye  Foundation,  First  Floor,  New  York,  1922  (p.  217). 


CHAPTER  VI. 


CRITICAL  SURVEY  OF  PREVIOUS  WORK  IN 
ALEUTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

This  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  a  brief  critical  survey  of  previous  investiga¬ 
tions  of  Aleutian  archaeology.  The  two  outstanding  names  connected  with  the  study 
of  the  Aleut  are  the  late  French  ethnologist,  Alphonse  Pinart,  and  the  American 
naturalist,  William  H.  Dali.  In  1871,  Pinart  visited  Unga  Island,  the  largest  of  the 
Shumagin  group,  and  in  a  burial-cave  on  Delaroff  Bay  named  by  him  “  la  caverne 
d’Aknanh  ”  found  the  remains  of  4  skeletons,  fragments  of  wooden  masks,  human 
figures  carved  in  wood,  and  other  painted  objects  of  wood.  Evidently  these  finds 
were  not  very  old,  and  from  the  point  of  view  of  Aleut  antiquities,  they  are  not  as 
important  as  are  the  investigations  of  Doctor  Dali.  Two  points  in  the  brief  descrip¬ 
tions  offered  by  Mr.  Pinart  should  be  noted.  He  informs  us  that  the  dead  lay  at 
full  length,  on  beds  of  moss ;  further,  that  these  were  the  remains  of  whalers,  who, 
among  the  Aleut,  were  of  a  specially  honored  group  and  consequently  were  buried 
in  this  posture  in  caves  and  not  in  earth  huts.  However,  Mr.  Pinart  fails  to  add  a 
more  detailed  description  of  the  position  of  the  bodies ;  for  example,  whether  they 
were  laid  on  their  backs  or  on  their  sides.1 

In  1874  Doctor  Dali  visited  the  same  cave.  In  this  connection  he  states  that 
Mr.  Pinart  “  had  secured  the  cream  of  what  was  contained  there,  though  much  that 
was  valuable  remained  behind,”  i.  e.}  he  took  what  came  to  his  notice  at  first  sight.2 
Doctor  Dali’s  investigations  cast  some  doubt  as  to  the  authenticity  of  Pinart’s 
report.  After  removing  many  fragments  of  rocks  which  had  fallen  from  above, 
Doctor  Dali  discovered  the  remains  of  13  skeletons.  In  another  crevice  he  found 
additional  remains  of  mummies  wrapped  in  decayed  grass-mats.  All  these  skeletons 
were  in  a  squatting  position.  Besides,  there  were  skeletons  not  only  of  adult  men, 
but  of  women  and  children,  and  these  could  not  belong  to  a  company  of  whalers.3 

Doctor  Dali,  in  1871-1874,  was  engaged  in  a  hydrographic  and  geographical 
reconnaissance  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  under  the  auspices  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey,  and  during  enforced  intervals  of  leisure,  made  necessary  by 

1  Alphonse  L.  Pinart,  La  Caverne  d’Aknaiih,  lie  d’Ounga  ( Archipel  Shumagin,  Alaska),  Paris,  1875, 
pp.  1-11,  plates  I-VIII.  The  transcription  of  the  name  of  the  cave  is  scarcely  correct;  it  should  be  A'knax'  or 
Akna’nix',  since  all  nouns  in  Aleut  end  with  x\  (See  also:  Catalogue  des  collection  rapportees  de  V Amerique 
Russe,  par  Alphonse  Pinart,  exposees  dans  le  Musee  d’Histoire  Naturelle  de  Paris.  Paris,  1872.  In  the  course 
of  the  description  of  the  objects  found  on  Unga  Island,  Pinart  remarks  as  follows  as  to  the  skeletons:  “.  .  .  .  les 
corps  avaient  ete  deposes  sur  une  litiere  en  mousse,  dans  une  position  allongee  (different  en  cela  de  la  maniere 
dont  les  Esquimaux  occidentaux  enterrent  leur  morts  en  repliant  les  membres  sur  le  corps)”  (p.  25). 

2  Before  Doctor  Dali’s  visit  the  cave  had  been  examined  by  other  persons  unqualified  to  do  so  and  in  conse¬ 
quence  the  remains  were  considerably  disturbed. 

3  W.  H.  Dali,  On  the  Remains  of  later  Prehistoric  Man  obtained  from  caves  in  the  Catherina  Archipelago, 
Alaska  Territory,  and  especially  from  the  caves  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowl¬ 
edge,  Washington,  1878,  pp.  28-31. 


101 


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Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


weather  conditions  which  interfered  with  surveying  operations,  he  undertook  exca¬ 
vations  of  ancient  Aleut  village  sites.  Thus,  he  excavated  on  the  islands  of  Attu, 
Atka,  Amaknax,  Unalaska,  Adax,  and  Amchitka.  The  author  also  excavated  on  the 
first  3  of  these  islands.  Doctor  Dali  also  gives  a  list  of  islands  (Amchitka,  Agattu, 
Kyska,  Amlia,  Umnak,  Sannax,  Unga,  and  other  Shumagin  Islands)  and  other 
points  on  the  Alaska  Peninsula  (Port  Moller  and  Chignik  Bay)  where  shell-heaps 
may  be  found.  Of  the  last-named  places  the  author  made  excavations  only  on 
Umnak  Island.  Thus  our  work  overlapped  sufficiently  for  a  review  of  results. 

In  the  main,  Doctor  Dali  and  the  author  are  agreed  in  the  facts  observed,  but 
differ  in  our  interpretations.  For  this  reason  it  seems  advisable  to  discuss  Doctor 
Dali’s  conclusions  in  some  detail.  He  concluded  that  the  Aleut,  beginning  with  their 
first  appearance,  left  on  the  islands  traces  of  3  stages  or  periods  of  culture.  These 
periods  are:  (1)  The  Littoral  Period,  represented  by  the  Echinus  layer;  (2)  The 
Fishing  Period,  represented  by  the  fish-bone  layer;  (3)  The  Hunting  Period,  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  mammalian  layer.4 

Naming  the  first  period  “  littoral  ”  does  not  appear  to  be  quite  accurate,  as  it 
implies  that  the  two  following  periods  represent  an  inland  and  not  a  coastal  culture. 
The  third  period  would  be  more  accurately  described  as  a  sea-mammalian  culture, 
since  under  “  mammals  ”  land  animals  are  usually  understood. 

Doctor  Dali  further  illustrates  the  periods  he  designates  as  follows:  In  the 
littoral  period  the  islanders  had  an  extremely  primitive  culture  which  left  no  trace 
of  manufactures  of  any  kind.  They  had  no  houses,  clothing,  fire,  lamps,  ornaments, 
weapons  (unless  of  the  most  primitive  kind),  implements  of  the  chase  or  for  fishing 
or  for  cooking  the  food  they  found  on  the  shore.  If  they  possessed  any  of  these 
things,  they  must  have  been  of  such  rude  or  perishable  materials  as  to  have  left  no 
traces.5  “  It  would  appear,”  he  says  further,  “  that  they  must  have  had  rafts  or  rude 
canoes  of  some  kind,  but  no  trace  of  them  is  left.”  He  found  no  skeletal  remains 
of  the  Aleut  of  the  echini  period,  so  he  concludes  they  were  cannibals.  Also  that 
the  Echinus  layers  represent  a  definite  cultural  stratum,  as  shown  by  the  finding  of 
stone  hammers  for  cracking  the  sea-urchins  and  that  only  near  the  uppermost  sur¬ 
face  of  the  Echinus  layer,  where  it  joins  the  fishbone  layer  were  there  found  stone 
net-sinkers,  very  rude  in  form.  Further,  the  broken  test  and  spines  of  the  echini 
“  presented  the  aspect,  until  closely  examined,  of  fine,  pure,  uniform,  greenish- 
white  sand.  With  it  were  found  sparingly  the  shells  of  some  edible  mollusks.  This 
bed  varied  in  thickness  from  a  total  of  2  feet  to  3  feet  in  a  vertical  direction.  The 
deposit  extended  everywhere  underneath  the  shell-heaps,  covering  3.5  acres  at 
Attu,  about  4.75  acres  at  one  of  the  Amchitka  villages,  and  at  Adakh  0.5  acre  or 
more,  by  measurement.”  Doctor  Dali  does  not,  however,  point  out  more  specifically 
where  the  echini  beds  he  describes  may  be  found. 

4  See  W.  H.  Dali,  On  Succession  in  the  Shell-Heaps  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  (Contributions  to  North 
American  Ethnology,  vol.  I,  Washington,  1877,  pp.  41-91).  See  also  by  the  same  author:  Notes  on  Pre¬ 
historic  Remains  in  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  On  further  Examination  of  the  Amaknax  Cave,  Captain’s  Bay, 
Unalaska  (Proceedings  California  Academy  of  Sciences,  November  4,  1872,  and  November  17,  1873). 

5  W.  H.  Dali,  On  Succession  in  the  Shell  Heaps  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  p.  55. 


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103 


In  the  opinion  of  Doctor  Dali,  the  Aleut  who  left  behind  them  the  Echinus 
layers  did  not  possess  even  the  embryonic  beginnings  of  culture  and  did  not  have 
even  the  edged-stone  implements  of  the  so-called  eolithic  period;  yet  the  possession 
of  some  implements  has  been  ascribed  even  to  man  of  the  Acheulean  and  the  Chel- 
lean  period,  while  the  use  of  fire  has  been  established  nearly  throughout  the  entire 
palaeolithic  period,  beginning  with  the  Acheulean,  and  some  archaeologists  believe 
that  man  of  the  eolithic  period  knew  the  use  of  fire,  although,  as  yet,  we  have  no 
proof  of  it.  Later  we  shall  see  that  Doctor  Dali  estimates  the  time  required  for 
the  formation  of  the  mound  of  kitchen  refuse  on  the  islands  as  3,000  years.  Now, 
since  the  Aleut  came  to  the  islands,  as  Doctor  Dali  justly  supposes,  from  the  Ameri¬ 
can  continent,  it  would  follow  that  3,000  years  ago,  when  Europe  was  passing  from 
the  later  Neolithic  period  to  the  Bronze  Age,  there  still  lived  in  northern  America 
a  people  without  any  culture.  On  the  other  hand,  the  presumption  that  the  Aleut 
of  the  sea-urchin  period  navigated  rafts  or  very  primitive  boats  is  quite  incom¬ 
patible  with  the  supposed  absence  of  any  implements,  save  boulders  for  breaking 
echini  shells.  It  is  also  difficult  to  imagine  navigation  by  rafts  in  the  stormy  waters 
of  Bering  Sea  and  how  people  could  live  under  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  Aleu¬ 
tian  Islands  without  clothing,  dwellings,  and  fire. 

Leaving  for  a  moment  this  hypothesis  of  Doctor  Dali,  let  us  turn  again  to  his 
characterization  of  the  culture-periods  among  the  Aleut.  He  assumes  that  the 
stratum  of  the  Fishing  Period  may  be  sharply  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Echinus 
Period,  since  the  Fishing  Period  layer,  though  showing  some  mollusk  shells  and 
bird-bones,  gives  but  occasional  remains  of  sea-urchins.  This  seeming  sudden  change 
in  the  mode  of  living  is  assigned  by  Doctor  Dali  to  a  new  immigrant  wave  of  fishing- 
people  from  the  continent.  However,  the  thickness  of  the  stratum  ascribed  to  the 
Fishing  Period  is  said  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  Littoral  Period.  No  lamps,  no 
evidences  of  fire,  or  of  underground  dwellings  occur  in  the  Fishing  Period  layer. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  earliest  skeleton  remains  were  found  here. 

Turning  to  the  next  assumed  culture  horizon,  it  was  noted  that  the  stratum  of 
fish-bones  was  not  so  sharply  separated  from  the  Mammalian  layer,  as  from  the 
Echinus  layer,  but  that  this  layer  imperceptibly  passes  over  into  that  for  the  Hunt¬ 
ing  Period.  Further,  Doctor  Dali  divides  the  mammalian  layer,  which  is  from  2  to 
10  feet  thick,  into  3  strata.  In  the  lowest  of  these  strata  are  principally  bones  of 
seals,  fur-seals,  sea-otters,  sea-lions,  and  small  whales.  In  the  middle  mammalian 
layer,  in  addition  to  the  aquatic  mammals  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the  lowest 
layer,  were  remains  of  the  whale  Megaptera  versabilis  and  the  bones  of  many  species 
of  sea-birds.  In  the  topmost  mammalian  layer,  to  the  bones  found  in  the  first  two 
were  added  bones  of  large  whales  and  of  various  species  of  unidentified  birds. 

The  first  two  culture  layers,  according  to  Doctor  Dali,  those  of  echini  and  fish, 
were  assumed  to  represent  pure  kitchen  refuse,  while  the  upper  layer,  that  of  mam¬ 
malian  bones,  was  intermingled  with  other  organic  remains.  Traces  of  underground 
or  half-underground  dwellings  were  found  only  beginning  with  the  second  stratum 
of  the  upper  layer,  where  were  also  indications  of  the  use  of  fire  and  lamps.  This 

8 


104 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


he  explains  by  the  acquisition  of  sufficient  quantities  of  oil  as  a  result  of  improved 
methods  of  hunting  sea  mammals. 

As  to  the  development  of  implements,  with  special  reference  to  their  form  and 
the  material  of  which  they  were  made,  Doctor  Dali  assumed  them  to  appear  in  the 
following  order:  in  the  fish-bone  layers  were  found  only  rudely  chipped  stone 
knives  and  heads;  bone  implements  appearing  in  the  upper  part  of  the  fishing  layer, 


107 


108 


Fig.  107. — Sea-urchin. 

Fig.  108. — Sea-urchin  without  needles. 


HO 


Fig.  109. — Fragment  of  sea-urchin  shell  without  needles. 
Fig.  no. — Split  pieces  of  sea-urchin  shell. 


as  follows :  first,  bone  heads  with  barbs  on  one  side,  and  later,  in  the  layer  contain¬ 
ing  bones  of  sea  mammals,  there  appeared  bone  heads  barbed  on  both  sides  and 
better  finished  and  polished  stone  implements. 

Such  is  the  general  picture  of  the  development  of  culture  on  the  Aleutian 
Islands  based  on  excavations  made  by  Doctor  Dali.  The  results  of  our  own  dig¬ 
gings,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  preceding  chapters,  particularly  Chapter  III, 
differ  considerably  from  these  conclusions.  First  of  all,  it  should  be  noted  that 
nowhere  in  the  course  of  our  excavations  were  the  shells  of  echini  ground  down  to 
such  a  condition  that  they  had  the  appearance  of  “  greenish  white  sand.”  This  con- 


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105 


dition  holds  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  some  of  our  diggings  the  culture  bearing 
layers  were  considerably  deeper  than  those  reported  by  Doctor  Dali.  The  greatest 
depth  of  the  three  layers  reported  by  Doctor  Dali  was  14  feet,  while  our  excavations 
reached  a  depth  of  21  feet  in  some  places  (see  Agla'gax'  site  on  Umnak  Island, 
especially  Pit  2).  However,  on  the  shore  of  Lastova  Bay  on  Attu  Island,  we  did 
observe  ground  echini  shells  in  a  comparable  condition.  Thus,  while  walking  to  the 
ancient  Nani'kax'  village  site,  we  sank  into  soft  sand,  consisting  in  great  part  of 
well-ground  shells  and  needles  of  echini,  which  gave  it  a  greenish  appearance.  But 
this  was  an  alluvial  layer,  the  result  of  action  of  the  sea  and  not  of  man. 

On  the  contrary,  the  fragments  of  sea-urchin  shells  uncovered  in  our  excava¬ 
tions,  even  in  the  lowest  layers,  consisted  of  split  five-  to  six-angled  lamellar  pieces, 
into  which  the  armor  of  the  sea-urchin  falls  in  drying  or  under  mechanical  pressure. 
From  constant  rubbing  against  each  other,  these  pieces  lose  the  form  of  regular 
polygons.  This  is  clear  from  our  collected  examples  of  fragments  of  echini  shells 
taken  from  various  depth.  Thus,  in  figure  107  may  be  seen  a  side  view  of  a  sea- 
urchin  with  the  needles,  while  figure  108  represents  the  sea-urchin,  without  needles, 
as  seen  from  the  side  of  the  mouth  opening.  In  figure  109  is  shown  a  fragment  of 
the  shell  of  a  sea-urchin  without  the  needles,  and  in  figure  no  the  split  pieces  of  the 
shell  in  natural  size.  Such  split  pieces  were  found  in  all  our  excavations  quite  inde¬ 
pendently  of  the  depth  of  the  layer.  Of  course,  among  these  split  pieces  were  smaller 
fragments  of  the  shell  and  parts  of  the  needles,  but  layers  containing  the  remains 
of  the  sea-urchin  had  by  no  means  the  appearance  of  “  pure,  fine  sand.” 

Further,  Doctor  Dali’s  estimate  of  the  number  of  acres  covered  by  sea-urchin- 
shell  refuse  is  not  clear,  for  the  writer  observed  no  such  uniformly  continuous 
deposits  as  his  statement  implies.  A  sedimentary  deposit  may  be  uniform  through¬ 
out  and  its  continuity  may  be  taken  for  granted,  but  the  continuous  spread  of 
kitchen  refuse  could  be  determined  only  by  removing  the  entire  upper  surface  of 
the  locality  in  which  such  refuse  occurs.  In  any  case,  our  experience  was  that  a 
given  layer  of  kitchen  refuse,  if  taken  separately,  does  not  cover,  without  interrup¬ 
tion,  a  large  space.  Thus,  in  one  pit  of  a  site,  the  lower  layers  may  consist  of  echini 
or  shell-fish,  while  in  another  pit  the  order  of  layers  may  be  different.  Even  in  the 
same  pit,  one  section  may  show  one  order  of  layers  and  another  section  quite  a 
different  one.  On  the  borders  of  a  site  were  usually  found  very  scant  kitchen 
remains,  and  then  in  spots  only.  Thus,  one  could  hardly  speak  of  acres  covered  by 
kitchen  middens.  Occasionally  the  space  between  two  pits,  if  excavated,  yielded  a 
very  small  amount  of  kitchen  refuse.  Hence,  in  order  to  present  a  clear  idea  of  the 
succession  of  the  layers  of  kitchen  refuse  in  our  excavations,  we  have  given  in  detail 
the  greater  part  of  the  sections  made. 

In  our  first  diggings  at  the  Nani'kax'  site,  on  Attu  Island,  the  successive  layers 
in  the  pits  were  as  follows:  Echini,  shellfish,  and  fish,  while  in  the  upper  layer 
appeared  the  bones  of  sea  mammals.  However,  later  excavations  made  it  appear 
that  the  succession  of  layers  in  the  pits  of  Nani'kax'  must  be  regarded  as  a  casual 
occurrence,  since  elsewhere  heaps  of  echini  and  of  mollusk  shells  were  often  found 


106 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


above  the  layers  of  mammal  bones.  In  such  cases  where  mammal  bones  were  rare 
in  the  lower  layers,  account  should  be  taken  of  the  fact  that  bones  of  mammals 
decay  more  rapidly  than  shells  of  echini  and  mollusks. 

In  order  to  determine  approximately  the  period  of  time  necessary  for  the  for¬ 
mation  of  a  layer  of  echini  of  a  given  thickness,  Doctor  Dali  dried  an  echini  of  the 
largest  size  and  reduced  it  to  coarse  grains.  He  found  that  it  had  a  capacity  of 
1.75  cubic  inches.  At  this  rate,  it  would  take  988  echini  to  make  a  cubic  foot  of  the 
layer  and  87,000,000  of  echini-shells  would  form  a  stratum  2  feet  deep  and  covering 
an  acre.  Assuming  a  village  of  20  inhabitants  and  supposing  100  echini  as  neces¬ 
sary  per  diem  to  feed  one  person,  Doctor  Dali  calculated  that  the  time  needed  for 
the  formation  of  the  stratum  of  echini  previously  described  on  the  island  of 
Amchitka  would  be  2,200  years;  but  on  the  average  he  assumed  a  period  of  1,000 
years  as  necessary  to  form  the  so-called  Littoral  period  for  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

The  arbitrary  character  of  Doctor  Dali’s  calculations  could  easily  be  demon¬ 
strated,  even  if  one  accepted  the  echini  layer  as  marking  a  distinct  chronological 
period.  But  such  a  period  could  never  have  existed,  simply  because  sea-urchins 
can  not  serve  as  food  throughout  the  whole  year.  The  tissues  of  the  Echinus ,  which 
form  a  rough,  hard  cartilage,  are  inedible  and  only  the  bright-yellow  ovaries  are 
eaten.  According  to  information  obtained  from  the  Umnak  people,  the  minute  eggs 
of  echini  are  fully  developed  from  April  to  May  and  September  to  October.  During 
February  and  March  there  are  no  eggs  and  the  inedible  tissues  of  the  Echinus  con¬ 
tain  “  only  water.”  Yet  we  were  told  by  the  Attu  people  that  some  echini  have  fully 
developed  eggs  in  June.  At  that  time  one  adult  Echinus  furnishes  a  full  tablespoon 
of  eggs.  According  to  the  Aleut,  6  or  7  echini  are  then  sufficient  for  a  meal  and 
may  satisfy  an  adult  man.  Echini  roe  is  sweetish,  but  taken  with  lemon  juice,  as  we 
did,  is  a  palatable  food.  So  in  some  respects  the  assertions  of  Doctor  Dali  do  not 
agree  with  the  statements  of  the  Aleut.  For  example,  he  says  that  the  ovaries, 
“  when  in  full  condition,  which  occurs  in  some  individuals  at  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
offer  2  or  3  tablespoonfuls  of  really  palatable  minute  eggs.  It  would  require  40  or 
50  adult  individuals  to  afford  a  good  meal  for  a  man.”  6 

The  present-day  Aleut  also  gather  echini  in  the  months  indicated  above,  even 
on  the  Pribilof  Islands,  where  other  food,  local  and  imported,  may  be  had  in  abun¬ 
dance.  The  greater  number  of  echini  are  gathered  by  the  women  in  shallow  pools 
on  shore  during  low  tide.  They  hold  them  on  a  stone  with  one  hand  and  crack  them 
open  with  a  stone  hammer  or  bone  club;  but  before  removing  the  eggs,  they  place 
the  sea-urchins  in  grass  bags  and  wash  them  in  fresh  water.  This  is  done  to  kill 
the  echini  and  not  to  remove  the  salty  water,  as  might  be  supposed.  They  die  in 
fresh  water.7  There  is  also  a  special  implement  ( cuniga'six  )  for  gathering  echini 
in  high  tides  or  in  deep  places  generally.8  This  consists  of  a  long  shaft  with  4 

6  See  W.  H.  Dali,  On  Succession  of  Shell  Heaps,  etc.,  p.  51. 

7  When  the  Aleut  catch  an  octopus  the  process  is  the  same.  Octopi  are  caught  in  shallow  places  from 
boats  by  means  of  hooks  tied  to  long  shafts.  After  dragging  an  octopus  out  of  the  sea-water  it  is  plunged  into 
fresh  water  and  in  a  moment  the  legs  and  feelers  cease  to  move. 

8  See  above,  p.  84,  fig.  33,  plate  24. 


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107 


blunted  circular  bone  or  wooden  prongs  attached  to  it.  This  may  be  distinguished 
from  a  bird-dart  by  the  absence  of  the  central  prong  and  of  barbs  on  the  prongs. 

Doctor  Dali  believes  that  the  echinus  eaters  “  might  have  secured  their  food 
with  hand  nets  or  scoop  nets  ”  and  that  with  the  beginning  of  the  Fishing  Period, 
the  larger  and  more  effective  seine  had  been  added.  But  we  know  certainly  that  nets 
and  seines  became  known  to  the  Aleut  only  after  the  advent  of  the  Russians  and 
the  stone  sinkers  found  in  the  excavations  were  used  for  fishing  with  line  and  hook. 
On  Attu  and  Umnak  we  were  afforded  many  opportunities  to  observe  how  the 
women  and  children  gathered  the  echini  during  every  low  tide.  For  one  thing, 
the  present-day  Aleut  do  not  throw  the  echini  shells  close  to  their  dwellings,  as 
did  their  ancestors,  but  carry  them  to  pits  especially  dug  for  this  purpose  at  some 
outlying  point  near  the  village.  Flence,  at  some  future  day,  the  remains  of  echini, 
mollusks,  fish,  and  other  food  thrown  out  by  the  present  Aleut  will  serve  as  objects 
for  study  by  palseoethnologists,  but  they  can  be  distinguished  from  the  ancient 
deposits  by  noting  that  the  kitchen  middens  of  the  present  Aleut  will  be  found  apart 
from  the  dwellings  and,  essentially,  apart  from  skeletal  remains.9 

On  Attu  Island  we  found  fragments  of  shells  of  echini  and  mollusks  on  the  top 
of  a  mountain  pass  between  Sarana  and  Lastova  bays,  at  a  height  of  800  meters. 
On  January  8,  1910,  while  on  Umnak  Island,  we  experienced  a  serious  volcanic 
shock.  The  following  morning  the  shore  was  covered  with  a  layer  of  stunned  fish, 
sea-urchins  and  shellfish,  about  2  feet  high  and  2  feet  wide,  but  in  several  days  these 
were  carried  to  the  neighboring  hills  and  mountains  and  eaten  by  gulls  and  ravens. 

The  fish-bone  layer,  Doctor  Dali  stated,  was  so  hard  that  a  bar  and  pickax  were 
required  to  disintegrate  it.  He  also  asserted  that  because  of  these  fish  remains  the 
deposits  could  be  exported  for  use  as  fertilizer.  This  was  not  our  experience.  As  to 
the  hardness  of  the  fish-bone  layers,  reference  may  have  been  made  to  layers 
accumulated  in  hard  clay,  such  as  we  found  on  Amaknax  Island.  The  fish-bone 
layers  we  found  in  sandy  deposits,  and  particularly  pure  layers  of  fish-bones, 
without  an  admixture  of  earth,  were  as  soft  while  digging  as  were  layers  of 
echini  and  mollusks.  The  fish-bones  found  by  us  were  of  a  dark-brown  color  and 
consisted  chiefly  of  the  bones  of  the  head  and  spine  of  cod-fish  ( Gadus  macro- 
cephalus  Tilarius;  Aleut,  atxi'dax')  and  of  halibut  ( Hippoglossoides  Hord.  a.  Gilb. ; 
Aleut,  ca'qix ').  There  were  found  also  the  bones  of  sculpins,  of  Cottus  aleuticus 
Gilb.,  Aleut  sxix,  or  agu'gim-qa,  i.  e.,  “  fish  of  the  high  tide,”  and  of  a  small  species 
of  shark  ( Semniasus  microcephalus;  Aleut,  qaci'kux ').  However,  Doctor  Dali 
states  that  he  found  also  the  bones  of  two  kinds  of  salmon,  “  hoikoh  of  the  Russians, 
and  another  Salmo  sp.”  Hoikoh  is  evidently  the  Russian  haiko  or  keta  ( Oncorhyn - 
chus  lagocephalus) .  But  the  keta  rarely  ascends  the  Aleut  rivers  from  the  sea.  The 
salmon  most  frequently  ascending  the  Aleut  rivers  is  the  Russian  “  red  fish  ”  or 

0  It  may  be  of  interest  at  this  point  to  call  attention  to  the  following :  On  hills  or  plains  far  from  the 
present  villages  or  from  ancient  sites  were  seen,  often  in  considerable  quantity,  fragments  of  shells  of  echini 
and  mollusks,  which  could  be  assumed  to  be  the  remains  of  man’s  food,  and  sometimes  might  even  be  regarded 
as  testimony  in  favor  of  the  rising  of  the  sea  bottom.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  were  simply  the  remains  of 
birds’  food. 


108 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


“  nerka  ”  ( Oncorhynchus  lycaodon),  Aleut  a'nux \  But  we  found  no  bones  of 
salmon.  The  Aleut  explained  this  by  saying  that  the  salmon  bones  decayed  very 
rapidly,  falling  to  pieces  in  2  or  3  years.  This  is  easily  conceivable  when  the  soft¬ 
ness  of  salmon  bones  is  taken  into  consideration,  as  compared  with  the  hard  bones 
of  sea  fishes  which  do  not  ascend  the  fresh  waters  of  rivers  and  lakes.10 

The  characteristic  peculiarity  of  kitchen  remains  attributed  to  prehistoric  man 
in  the  palaeolithic  or  neolithic  period  is  that  these  deposits  accumulated  around  his 
dwelling  and  that  in  them  he  interred  his  dead.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Aleut. 
Remains  of  food,  dwellings,  and  skeletons  were  found  together.  Our  conception 
of  the  accumulation  of  kitchen  refuse  by  the  Aleut  is,  then,  as  follows :  All  uneat¬ 
able  parts  of  animals  and  other  refuse  were  taken  from  their  semiunderground 
dwellings  and  thrown  out  near  the  outer  walls.  These  heaps  of  kitchen  refuse  grew 
until  they  reached  the  tops  of  the  dwellings  and  also  filled  the  pits  of  the  abandoned 
huts  adjoining.  Eventually  new  dwellings  were  built  amid  these  kitchen  remains, 
but  necessarily  at  a  higher  level  than  the  old  ones.  Thus,  after  repetitions  of  this 
process,  the  village  sites  were  elevated.  In  repairing  a  ruined  dwelling  or  building 
a  new  one,  the  Aleut  often  used  old  pits,  raising  their  bases  in  accordance  with  the 
level  of  the  whole  site.  Also,  the  pit  walls  were  drawn  nearer  to  one  another  or 
placed  farther  apart,  according  to  the  size  of  the.  dwelling  needed.  So  there  might 
be  occasion  to  dig  amid  kitchen  remains  in  erecting  a  new  underground  dwelling 
and  in  consequence  displacement  of  the  midden  layers  may  have  taken  place,  caus¬ 
ing  later  remains  to  lie  deeper  than  the  earlier  ones.  The  soil  containing  plant  roots, 
etc.,  which  had  originally  covered  the  kitchen  refuse  might,  under  such  circum¬ 
stances,  be  so  displaced  as  to  lie  beneath  the  shell-heap  itself.  Nevertheless,  in  spite 
of  these  possibilities,  the  deeper-lying  layers  of  kitchen  refuse  appear  to  be  the  more 
ancient.  Particularly  is  this  true  with  reference  to  spaces  between  the  dwelling  pits 
where  the  refuse  was  thrown  out.  Most  of  our  sections  were  made  on  the  edges  of 
pits  or  along  the  walls  which  separated  one  pit  from  another.  Besides,  in  cases  of 
dislocation  or  displacement  of  layers,  the  disturbance  of  their  horizontal  form  and 
regular  succession  is  easily  noticed  (see,  for  instance,  plate  3,  fig.  2).  Generally, 
then,  it  may  be  said  that  the  deeper  layers  of  kitchen  refuse  on  the  Aleutian  Islands 
are  the  more  ancient.  This  is  true  also  of  skeletal  remains,  implements,  and  other 
traces  of  man’s  activities  disclosed  in  the  course  of  the  excavations. 

We  have  previously  observed  that  in  all  layers  of  kitchen  refuse,  even  in  the 
lowest,  objects  were  found  which  testify  to  a  much  higher  culture  than  that 
described  by  Doctor  Dali,  but  it  may  be  well  here  to  point  out  the  most  conspicuous 

10  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  well-known  Russian  geologist,  the  late  Professor  Inostrantzev,  failed 
to  find  the  bones  of  salmon  and  pike  among  fish  remains  in  the  excavations  on  the  shore  of  Ladoga  Sea,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  they  are  at  present  abundant  in  that  sea  (see  A.  A.  Inostrantzev,  Prehistoric  Man  of  the  Stone 
Age  on  the  shore  of  the  Ladoga  Sea,  Petrograd,  1882,  p.  90,  in  Russian).  In  the  Danish  Kj okkenmoddings  among 
mollusk  shells  were  also  found  bones  of  sea  fishes  like  cod,  flounder,  and  herring  (see  Doctor  Hugo  Obermaier, 
Der  Mensch  der  Vorzeit,  Allgemeine  Verlags-Gesell.,  Berlin,  Munchen,  Wien,  p.  471).  We  wish,  however,  to  men¬ 
tion  that  “  in  one  of  the  Mentone  caves  Riviere  found  a  paleolithic  necklace  composed  of  twenty-four  salmon 
vertebrae.”  (G.  G.  MacCurdy,  The  held  of  Paleolithic  Art.  American  Anthropologist,  vol.  26,  No.  1,  January- 
March,  1924,  p.  41.)  It  would  be  extremely  interesting  to  verify  whether  the  mentioned  vertebrae  are  really  of 
salmon  fishes,  which  usually  ascend  rivers  for  spawning. 


Critical  Survey  of  Previous  Work. 


109 


items.  That  the  Aleut  used  fire  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  accumulation  of  the 
kitchen  refuse  is  shown  by  the  discovery  of  stone  and  bone  lamps  in  all  the  layers. 
Thus  in  Pit  4,  Nanikax,  Attu  Island,  at  the  bottom  of  the  lowest  layer,  and  at  a 
depth  of  4.8  meters  (the  section  was  excavated  to  a  depth  of  5  meters)  a  bone  lamp 
was  found  (plate  20,  fig.  5) ;  a  similar  bone  lamp  was  found  in  the  same  section  in 
its  upper  layer  at  a  depth  of  1  meter  (plate  20,  fig.  7).  This  bears  testimony  to  the 
fact  that  not  only  the  people  who  accumulated  the  lowest  layer  of  kitchen  refuse 
used  bone  lamps  for  lighting  and  warming,  but  the  same  type  of  bone  lamp  was 
preserved  to  the  end  of  the  Stone  Age  of  the  Aleut.  Stone  lamps  were  also  dis- 
'  covered  in  layers  at  different  depths,  not  excluding  the  lowest  ones.  For  instance, 
at  Atxa'lax',  Atka  Island,  a  large  stone  lamp  was  found  at  a  depth  of  3.4  meters 
(plate  19,  fig.  2).  The  pit  was  dug  out  to  4.2  meters.  At  the  Agla'gax'  site,  on 
Umnak  Island,  a  small  stone  lamp  was  found  in  Pit  3  in  the  lowest  stratum  of  the 
last  layer  of  kitchen  refuse,  at  a  depth  of  4.3  meters.  The  pit  was  excavated  to  a 
depth  of  4.5  meters  (see  p.  32). 

That  the  Aleut  used  fire  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  accumulation  of  kitchen 
refuse  is  shown  by  the  discovery  of  stone  “  frying-pans  ”  and  traces  of  charcoal 
and  ashes  of  fire-places  in  the  lowest  layers  of  remains.  Thus,  a  stone  frying-pan 
was  found  in  Atxalax,  Atka  Island,  in  the  lowest  culture  layer,  at  a  depth  of  4 
meters,  in  Pit  A,  the  whole  depth  of  the  pit  being  4.2  meters  (see  p.  27). 

The  use  of  lamps  in  the  earliest  period  of  man’s  existence  on  the  Aleutians,  for 
which  the  blubber  of  sea  mammals  is  necessary,  might  of  itself  serve  as  evidence  that 
the  Aleut  were  hunters  at  the  time  of  their  arrival  at  the  islands.  This  conclusion  may 
well  be  corroborated  by  the  discovery  of  bones  of  aquatic  mammals  in  all  the  culture 
layers  of  the  excavations.  Even  the  bones  of  the  largest  sea  mammals,  the  whales, 
were  found  in  the  lowest  layers  of  kitchen  remains.  Thus,  for  example,  bones  of  a 
large  whale  were  found  in  the  lowest  culture  layer,  at  a  depth  of  4.5  meters,  in  Pit  4, 
Nani'kax'  site,  Attu  Island  (see  p.  25).  On  Umnak  Island  bones  of  a  large  whale 
were  found  in  the  lowest  culture  layer  in  Agla'gax',  Pit  2,  at  a  depth  of  6.2  meters; 
the  total  depth  of  the  pit  was  6.5  meters  (see  p.  31). 

It  is  true  that  whales’  bones  were  not  necessarily  derived  from  whales  killed  by 
hunters,  but  may  have  been  obtained  from  stranded  dead  whales  killed  by  killer 
whales.  In  this  case,  however,  whalebones  would  not  be  so  frequently  found  through¬ 
out  the  excavations.  In  addition,  bones  of  other  sea  mammals  were  also  found  in 
the  lowest  layers  of  kitchen-middens.  Finally,  fragments  and  parts  of  implements 
for  hunting  sea  mammals  were  also  discovered  in  the  lowest  layers  of  the  excava¬ 
tions.  Of  these  may  be  noted,  the  stone  blade  of  a  throwing-lance  found  at  Nani'kax', 
Attu  Island,  in  the  lowest  culture  layer  (fig.  33)  at  a  depth  of  4.7  meters;  the  stone 
point  of  a  throwing-lance  found  under  the  last  culture  layer,  on  a  clay  bed,  in  Pit  4, 
Uglu'dax',  Umnak  Island  (fig.  14)  ;  the  stone  point  of  a  war-lance  found  at  a  depth 
of  5.1  meters  in  Pit  2,  Agla'gax',  Umnak  Island  (plate  15,  fig.  22). 


110  Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 

Doctor  Dali  illustrates  two  stone  sinkers.11  One  is  rude  in  character  and  the 
other  is  of  better  workmanship,  with  a  regular  groove  in  the  middle.  According  to 
his  opinion,  the  first  belongs  to  the  Fishing  Period  and  the  second  is  a  present-day 
net-sinker.  In  these  two  examples  he  sees  the  assumed  progress  the  Aleut  have 
made  in  the  manufacture  of  stone  implements.  But  if  we  consider  the  specimens 
illustrated  in  plate  17,  it  will  be  seen  that  rudely  worked  sinkers  were  also  found  in 
the  upper  layers.  Even  now  the  Aleut  make  sinkers  as  rude  as  those  found  in  the 
lowest  layers  of  the  excavations;  these  they  use  for  the  seines  adopted  from  the 
Russians.  So,  in  general,  notwithstanding  Doctor  Dali’s  opinion  to  the  contrary, 
the  Aleut  were  acquainted  with  fishing  on  their  arrival  at  the  islands.  Bone  heads 
for  fishing-spears  and  parts  of  bone  hooks  for  fishing-lines  were  found  in  the  lowest 
culture  layers.  One  bone  head  for  a  fish-spear  was  found  at  a  depth  of  6.2  meters 
(see  plate  24,  fig.  51).  This  appears  to  refute  Doctor  Dali’s  opinion  that  the  earliest 
inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  had  no  bone  implements.  In  the  lowest  layers 
of  remains  we  found  fragments  of  bone  heads  and  bone  points  of  arrows  and 
throwing-darts.  And  again,  Doctor  Dali’s  assertions  that  the  earliest  bone  heads 
were  distinguished  by  being  barbed  on  one  side  only,  also  remain  uncorroborated  by 
the  results  of  our  excavations,  for  in  all  layers  we  found  bone  heads  of  both  types, 
with  barbs  on  one  or  both  sides.  Further,  the  discovery,  in  the  lowest  layers,  of  bone 
awls  and  needles,  of  bone  and  stone  scrapers,  of  whetstones,  of  paints  and  pestles 
for  grinding  them,  show  conclusively  that  the  Aleut  were  sewing  clothing  and  paint¬ 
ing  skins  in  the  early  days  of  their  inhabitation  of  the  islands. 

Returning  to  the  question  of  the  use  of  fire  by  the  ancient  Aleut,  it  should  be 
pointed  out  that  in  the  lowest  culture  layers  we  found  bone  and  stone  heads  for  fire¬ 
making  drills  and  bone  wedges  for  splitting  logs  of  driftwood  (see  p.  87). 

Finally,  Doctor  Dali’s  supposition  that  the  Aleut  began  to  build  semi¬ 
underground  dwellings  only  at  the  time  of  the  middle  stratum  of  the  “  Hunting 
Period  ”  layer  remains  uncorroborated,  since  we  found,  in  the  different  layers, 
whale  bones  which  had  served  as  posts  in  ancient  Aleut  dwellings  or  as  parts  of  the 
roof  frame  (Chapter  III). 

It  is  thus  that  a  critical  survey  of  the  suppositions  of  Doctor  Dali  concerning 
the  history  of  the  development  of  the  culture  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands  leads  one  to  the  assertion  that  the  Aleut  came  to  the  islands  with  a  compara¬ 
tively  high  primitive  culture,  not  far  removed  from  that  found  by  the  Russian 
invaders.  Of  course  during  the  period  of  occupation  changes  in  the  native  material 
life  did  occur,  partly  as  the  result  of  adaptation  to  changes  in  the  environment,  partly 
as  a  matter  of  culture  progress,  but  these  changes  were  trivial. 


11  He  calls  them  net  sinkers,  but  in  fact  they  are  sinkers  for  fish-hooks. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  AND  ETHNOLOGICAL  INFERENCES. 

Before  presenting  the  conclusions  based  on  our  own  data  on  the  prehistoric 
Aleut,  we  wish  to  give  critical  consideration  to  those  of  earlier  explorers.  It  has 
already  been  stated  that  theories  as  to  the  origin -of  the  Aleut  are  at  great  variance; 
though  most  writers  on  the  subject  believe  that  the  Aleutian  Islands  were  peopled 
by  immigrants  from  Asia. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  Aleut,  in  distinction  from  the  northwestern  Eskimo 
of  America,  had  had  no  intercourse  with  Siberian  natives  before  the  islands  were 
discovered  by  the  Russians.  The  Aleut  became  acquainted  with  the  Kurilians,  Kam- 
chadal,  and  other  Siberians  through  Russian  traders  and  hunters  who  transported 
them  on  their  vessels  to  colonize  the  Komandorsky  Islands. 

Despite  this,  Weniaminoff  supported  the  theory  of  the  Mongolian  origin  of  the 
Aleut,  basing  his  conclusion  on  a  doubtful  tradition  dealing  with  the  arrival  of  the 
Aleut  on  the  islands  from  a  “  big  land  ”  or  “  country  ”  from  the  west.  Furthermore, 
he  believed  the  “big  land  ”  of  the  tradition  to  be  Japan.1  Baron  Wrangel  was  also 
of  the  same  opinion,  laying  particular  stress  on  the  Mongoloid  appearance  of  the 
Aleut.2  Associated  with  Weniaminoff  and  Wrangel  was  the  well-known  explorer, 
Professor  Schrenk,  who  believed  that  the  Aleut  could  have  reached  the  Aleutian 
Islands  from  the  west  with  no  other  means  of  navigation  (small  and  large  skin 
boats)  than  those  they  had  when  discovered  by  the  Russians.  Their  further  expan¬ 
sion  to  the  American  continent  on  the  east  was  prevented,  according  to  Professor 
Schrenk,  by  the  resistance  of  the  Konyag  and  Kolosh  (Tlingit).  For  these  reasons 
Schrenk  ranked  the  Aleut  among  the  Palseasiatics.3 

So  it  may  be  inferred  that  Schrenk  believes  this  migration  of  the  Aleut  from 
Asia  occurred  during  recent  time,  or,  in  other  words,  when  the  present  geographi¬ 
cal  conditions  existed.  Following  Schrenk,  a  recent  investigator,  S.  K.  Patkanoff, 
who  worked  out  the  statistical  materials  of  the  census  of  1897  of  the  Siberian 
natives,  also  placed  the  Aleut  among  the  Palseasiatics.4  Again,  the  belief  in  a  possi- 

1 1.  Weniaminoff,  Notes  on  the  Islands  of  the  Unalaska  Division,  St.  Petersburg,  Part  II,  p.  272  (in 
Russian).  It  may  be  noted  that  Aleut  give  the  name  “Big  Land”  (Ta'nam  Anuna'  or  Ta'nax-Anu'nax')  to 
one  of  the  Four  Volcano  Islands,  which  are  at  present  uninhabited,  but  in  the  days  before  the  advent  of  the 
Russians  were  inhabited.  It  is  possible  that  some  of  the  old  villages  on  Umnak  Island  or  even  on  the  island  of 
Unalaska  were  founded  by  immigrants  from  Ta'nam-Anuna'. 

2  See  Wrangel,  Voyage  in  Siberia  and  in  the  Arctic  Sea,  Part  II,  p.  124.  (In  Russian.) 

3  L.  Schrenk,  Die  Volker  des  Amur-Landes,  Band  III,  pp.  251-252.  According  to  Schrenk,  the  Aleut  came 
to  the  Aleutian  chain  from  Asia  and  were  prevented  from  expanding  to  the  Continent  by  the  resistance  of  the 
Konyag,  who  stopped  their  advance.  Weniaminoff,  however,  recognizes  the  affinity  of  language,  physical  type, 
and  culture  between  this  group  and  the  Aleut. 

4  S.  Patkanoff,  Essay  d’une  statistique  et  d’une  Geographie  de  peuples  Palceasiatiques  de  la  Siberie, 
St.  Petersbourg,  1903;  Statistical  Data  showing  the  Tribal  Compositoin  of  Siberia’s  Population  (in  Russian), 
vol.  1,  pp.  107,  165,  Petrograd,  1912. 


Ill 


112 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


ble  migration  from  Asia  to  America  over  the  Aleutian  chain  is  favored  by 
Professor  W.  J.  Sollas,*but  he  gives  no  indications  of  the  time  during  which  this 
assumed  migration  could  have  taken  place.5  We  also  note  that  the  Russian  eth¬ 
nologist,  Leo  Sternberg,6  refers  to  an  instance  of  Gilyak  on  a  small  island  not  far 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Amur  River,  having  come  in  contact  with  Aleut,  and 
expresses  his  belief  in  the  common  origin  of  both  peoples. 

Finally,  the  Danish  explorer,  FI.  P.  Steensby,  expressed  the  opinion  “  that  the 
Aleut  are  members  of  an  original  independent  tribe  which  adopted  the  implements 
and  hunting  methods  of  the  subarctic  Eskimo.”  7  But  it  should  be  stated  that 
Steensby  based  his  conclusions  on  Doctor  Dali’s  designation  of  the  three  periods  of 
Aleut  culture. 

The  first  traveler  to  express  the  supposition  that  the  Aleut  came  from  the 
American  continent  was  Captain  P.  Saikoff.  He  visited  the  Aleutian  Islands  in 
1772-1778  on  the  ship  St.  Vladimir.9,  Among  travelers  of  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
century  it  was  Doctor  Dali 9  who  combated  the  idea  that  the  Aleutian  chain  was  a 
bridge  for  emigrants  from  Asia  to  America/referring  to  the  fact  that  Commander 
Islands  were  uninhabited  before  the  Bering  Expedition,  that  the  distance  between 
Kamchatka  and  the  Commander  Islands  is  very  considerable  (138  statute  miles) 
and  that  the  distance  between  these  islands  and  Attu  Island  is  still  greater  (253 
statute  miles).  On  these  grounds  Doctor  Dali  finds  it  improbable  that  the  Aleut 
came  from  the  west.  It  should  be  added  that  even  in  their  present  skin  boats  they 
are  unable  to  navigate  such  long  stretches  of  rough,  foggy,  and  tempestuous  seas. 
Besides,  skin  boats  were  and  still  are  unknown  to  the  Aino  and  Gilyak,  as  well  as 
to  the  Kamchadal. 

The  Russian  zoologist,  Suvoroff,  who  studied  the  seal  fisheries  on  the  Com¬ 
mander  Islands,  estimates  the  distance  between  Copper  Island  and  Attu  at  about 
180  nautical  miles  and  between  Bering  Island  and  the  Kamchatka  headland  at  about 
90  nautical  miles.  Professor  Suvoroff  also  gives  the  data  for  various  depths :  that 
between  Bering  and  Copper  Islands  is  about  70  fathoms,  but  between  Copper  Island 
and  Attu  it  reaches  1,996  fathoms.  Between  Bering  Island  and  the  Kamchatka 
Peninsula  the  depth  is  still  greater,  being  3,117  fathoms.10 

The  idea  that  the  islands  were  peopled  by  Japanese  junks  occasionally  carried 
to  the  east  by  gales,  Doctor  Dali  justly  finds  unreasonable,  first,  because  they  would 
be  carried  by  the  Japanese  and  great  easterly  Pacific  currents  to  the  coast  of  America 
in  latitude  50  before  the  northerly  branch  of  the  current  would  cast  them  up  on  land; 

0  W.  J.  Sollas,  Ancient  Hunters  and  their  Modern  Representatives,  London,  1911,  p.  379. 

6  L.  J.  Sternberg,  The  Gilyak,  Moscow,  1905,  p.  9  (a  separate  from  the  “  Ethnographical  Survey,”  parts  60, 
61,  and  63). 

7  H.  P.  Steensby,  An  Anthropogeographical  Study  of  the  Origin  of  the  Eskimo  culture,  Kobenhavn,  1916, 

P-  151. 

8  P.  S.  Pallas,  Neue  nordische  Beytrage,  Vol.  Ill,  1782,  p.  184. 

9  W.  H.  Dali,  On  the  Origin  of  the  Inuit  (Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  I,  Wash¬ 
ington,  1877,  pp.  95-97)  i  On  the  Geological  Aspects  of  the  Possible  Human  Immigration  Between  Asia  and 
America  (American  Anthropologist,  vol.  14,  No.  1,  1912,  p.  12). 

10  See  Suvoroff,  The  Commander  Islands  and  Fur-Hunting  Trade  on  them.  Publication  of  the  Russian 
Geographical  Society,  Petrograd,  1912. 


Archaeological  and  Ethnological  Inferences. 


113 


secondly,  no  migrations  were  ever  effected  by  accidental  shipwrecks.  It  must  also 
be  remembered  that  women  did  not  accompany  parties  of  primitive  sea-going 
hunters.11 

The  author  agrees  fully  with  the  theoretical  considerations  of  Doctor  Dali  con¬ 
cerning  the  impossibility  of  a  direct  peopling  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  from  Asia 
under  geographical  conditions  like  the  present  and  with  the  prehistoric  means  of 
navigation.  However,  some  attention  should  be  given  to  the  past  status  of  the 
islands,  i.  e.,  the  geological  basis  for  considering  the  Aleutian  Islands  at  one  time  or 
another  as  a  land  bridge  from  Asia  to  America. 

This  general  question  has  three  aspects:  (i)  Did  the  land  bridge  between 
northeastern  Asia  and  northwestern  America,  which  undoubtedly  existed,  reach  as 
far  to  the  south  as  the  present  latitude  of  the  Aleutian  chain?  (2)  Can  the  present 
Aleutian  chain  be  regarded  as  a  remnant  of  the  ancient  land  bridge?  The  signifi¬ 
cance  of  an  affirmative  answer  to  this  second  question  is  obvious.  In  any  case  it  is 
the  question  in  which  we  are  exclusively  interested,  namely,  (3)  was  this  junction 
of  the  two  continents  still  in  existence  during  the  Pleistocene  Period,  i.  e.,  during  the 
time  of  the  earliest  possible  migration  of  man  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New?12 

Unfortunately,  the  geology  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  is  not  sufficiently  well 
known  to  give  a  definite  answer  to  these  questions.  Even  with  the  help  of  the  gen¬ 
eral  descriptions  of  different  explorers,  it  is  difficult  to  form  a  definite  opinion  as  to 
the  basal  rock  of  the  Aleutians.  As  yet  it  is  known  to  us  only  in  isolated  localities, 
remote  from  one  another.13  Plutonic  rocks  of  diorite  and  granite,  quartzite,  and 
other  ancient  rocks  are  mentioned  as  occurring  on  Unalaska  as  well  as  on  Attu. 
Professor  Jaggar  refers  to  slates  found  on  Unalaska  Island.14  But  generally  the 
ancient  rocks  occur  among  more  recent  eruptive  minerals  of  andesite  and  among 
the  tertiary  eruptive  basalts  as  blocks  raised  by  volcanic  processes.  Suess  15  regards 
the  arc  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  as  a  continuation  of  the  Alaskides,  mountains  of  a 
comparatively  recent  origin.  Judging  from  the  changes  observed  on  Bogoslof  Island, 


11  We  wish,  however,  to  point  out  that  Steensby  ( An  Anthropogeographical  Study  of  the  Origin  of  the 
Eskimo  Culture,  pp.  208,  209)  regards  it  as  plausible  that  the  Eskimo  could  have  been  influenced  by  Japanese 
navigators  before  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  after  which  date  the  Japanese  government  pro¬ 
hibited  all  navigation  beyond  its  home  waters.  Professor  Haddon  ( Wanderings  of  Peoples,  p.  74)  believes  that 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  like  Bering  Strait,  could  have  served  as  stepping-stones  for  migrations.  The  same  is  main¬ 
tained  by  Foy  ( Zur  geschichte  der  Eissentechnik )  and  admitted  by  Weule  ( Leitfaden  der  Volkerkunde,  Leipzig 
und  Wien,  1912,  p.  30). 

22  Some  anthropologists  believe  in  the  existence,  previous  to  the  Palaeolithic  age,  of  the  so-called  Eolithic 
Age,  which  carries  us  back  to  the  Tertiary  Period.  But  since  the  remains  of  Tertiary  man  himself  have  not 
been  discovered  as  yet,  the  idea  of  an  Eolithic  Man  remains  a  conjecture.  It  may  be  remembered  that  a  land 
bridge  between  North  America  and  Eastern  Asia  existed  during  the  whole  Tertiary  Period,  and  if  a  Tertiary 
man  did  exist  he  could  have  followed  the  Tertiary  mammals  in  their  migrations  from  the  Old  to  the  New  World. 

13  C.  Grewingk,  Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss  der  orographischen  und  geognostischen  Beschaffenheit  der  Nord- 
westlichen  Kiiste  Amerikas,  St.  Petersburg,  1850,  p.  123;  G.  F.  Becker,  Reconnaissance  of  the  Gold  Fields  of 
Southern  Alaska,  with  some  notes  on  general  Geology  (18th  Annual  Report,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1897-98, 
part  3,  p.  251)  ;  Dali  and  Harris,  Correlation  Papers,  Neocene  (Bulletin,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1892,  p.  968). 

14  T.  A.  Jaggar,  Jr.,  Journal  of  the  Technology  Expedition  to  the  Aleutian  Islands,  1907  (Technology 
Review,  Vol.  X,  No.  1,  Boston,  1908).  Although  the  ancient  minerals,  which  served  for  making  the  stone  imple¬ 
ments  before  described,  were  obtained  on  the  islands  themselves,  (hey  are  not  referred  to  as  material  taken  not 
in  situ.  According  to  Becker  (see  footnote  13)  the  whole  range  of  active  volcanoes  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  pro¬ 
duces  andesitic  lava  exclusively,  while  basaltic  lava  predominates  in  Tertiary  beds. 

15  Ed.  Suess.  The  Face  of  the  Earth,  Oxford,  1909,  vol.  4,  P-  374  (English  translation). 


114 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


the  formation  of  mountains  on  the  Aleutians  is  still  in  process.16  Smoking  craters 
are  still  to  be  found  on  all  the  islands  of  the  chain,  from  Unimak  to  the  west  to 
Small  Sitkin  (long.  178°  30'  E.).  Kiska  Island  (1770  20'  E.  long.)  to  the  west  of 
Small  Sitkin,  consists  of  andesites.  The  configuration  of  most  of  the  islands,  with 
their  pairs  of  deep  bays  on  both  sides  and  their  low  and  narrow  necks  of  land,  clearly 
shows  that  they  were  formed  by  a  junction  of  separate  rocks  or  small  volcanic 
islands.  The  presence  in  many  localities  of  petrified  shells  of  the  Tertiary  Period 
shows  that  these  places  were  still  under  water  in  the  Tertiary  age.  As  has  been 
stated  before,  Doctor  Dali  cites  the  distance  and  the  depth  of  the  sea  between  the 
Commander  Islands  and  Attu  as  proof  that  migration  from  Asia  to  America  by  the 
Aleutian  route  was  impossible.  These  considerations  can  not  refer  to  the  earliest 
geological  periods,  as  the  great  depth  of  the  sea  between  these  islands  may  have 
resulted  from  a  more  recent  sinking  of  the  sea-bottom.  For  our  purpose  it  is  impor¬ 
tant  to  know  in  what  geological  period  this  sinking  took  place.  The  time  of  the 
sinking  of  the  sea-bottom,  which  reaches  a  depth  of  3,117  fathoms  between  the  Com¬ 
mander  Islands  and  Kamchatka,  is  placed  by  Professor  Bogdanovich  in  the 
Post-Pliocene  or  in  the  early  Pleistocene,  i.  e.,  in  the  period  which  preceded  the 
appearance  of  man  on  the  American  continent.17 

It  is  true  that  on  Attu,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  volcanic  rocks 
have  not  as  yet  been  found.  However,  andesite,  of  which  many  of  the  stone  imple¬ 
ments  were  made,  was  brought,  according  to  the  statements  of  the  Aleut,  from 
Agatu,  another  island  of  the  same  group,  located  to  the  south  of  Attu.  It  is  not 
without  interest  to  note  that  in  none  of  the  lakes  on  the  Aleutians,  including  Attu, 
were  fresh-water  fish  found.  Neither  have  we  authentic  data  as  to  the  finding  of 
Pleistocene  fossils  on  the  islands.  Weniaminoff  states  that  in  1836  a  mammoth-tusk 
was  discovered  on  St.  Paul  Island,18  but  he  does  not  state  who  found  it  and  where. 

Mr.  Stanley  Brown,  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  in  his  account  (1891)  of 
the  Pribilof  Islands,  writes  as  follows: 

“  There  are  two  fragments  of  palseontologic  evidence  connected  with  these  islands  which, 
as  they  have  been  used  by  writers,  demand  a  cautionary  word.  The  tusk  of  a  mammoth  was 
found  in  the  sands  of  northeast  point  on  Saint  Paul  island,  and  the  tooth  of  one  is  reported  as 
coming  from  the  shores  of  Saint  George.  As  there  is  not  a  foot  of  earth  upon  either  island, 
save  that  which  has  resulted  from  the  decomposition  of  the  native  rock  and  the  decay  of  the 
vegetation,  the  value  of  such  testimony  is  questionable.”  (Bull.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  vol.  Ill, 
p.  499.) 

We  have  information  also  that  mammoth  tusks  and  teeth  were  found  on  Unalaska 
Island  in  1801, 19  evidently  based  on  the  statements  of  hunters,  but  these  can  be  given 
little  weight.  But  even  if  the  finds  of  isolated  bones  of  diluvial  animals  had  actually 
taken  place,  they  would  not  be  incontrovertible  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the 

16  T.  A.  Jaggar,  Jr.,  The  Evolution  of  Bogoslof  Volcano  (Bull.  American  Geographical  Society,  Vol.  XL 
July  1908). 

17  C.  Bogdanovich,  Geologische  Skizze  von  Kamtschatka  (Petermann’s  Mitteilungen,  1904). 

18  Weniaminoff,  Notes  on  the  Islands  of  the  Unalaska  Division,  vol.  1,  p.  196. 

19  F.  Stein,  On  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  (Memoirs  of  the  Mineralogical  Society, 
vol.  1,  1830,  St.  Petersburg,  p.  383,  in  Russian). 


Archaeological  and  Ethnological  Inferences. 


115 


animals  themselves  in  former  times.  Separate  bones  could  be  brought  by  man  or  be 
washed  out  by  the  sea.  Of  the  bone  objects  excavated,  there  was  not  a  single 
instance  of  an  object  made  of  mammoth  bone;  this  in  itself  may  suffice  to  show  the 
absence  of  the  remains  of  the  mammoth  on  the  islands. 

G.  M.  Dawson  made  depth  measurements  with  a  deep-sea  lead,  and  discovered 
a  shallow  submarine  plateau  beginning  near  Unimak  Pass  and  running  northwest¬ 
ward  to  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Navarin  in  Siberia.  He  sees  in  this  traces  of  a  wide 
terrestrial  plain  which  connected  North  America  with  Asia  and  which  existed  dur¬ 
ing  a  long  period  in  later  geologic  time.20  However,  the  arc  of  the  Aleutian  Chain 
lies  to  the  southwest  of  this  line. 

Thus,  it  may  be  said,  when  geological  conditions  are  taken  into  consideration, 
that  the  Aleut  could  not  have  come  to  the  islands  from  the  west.  The  question  of 
their  origin  must,  therefore,  be  merged  with  that  of  the  origin  of  the  native  popu¬ 
lation  of  America,  in  general,  i.  e.,  the  Eskimo  and  Indians. 

Setting  aside  the  question  of  the  relation  of  the  Eskimo  and  Indians,  we  will 
consider  the  relations  of  the  Aleut  and  Eskimo  as  shown  by  their  linguistic,  cultural, 
and  somatological  connections.  The  Aleut  language  belongs,  without  any  doubt,  to 
the  Eskimo  stock.  It  has  not  been  possible,  as  yet,  to  make  a  detailed  comparative 
study  of  my  extensive  Aleut  dictionary  and  published  Eskimo  vocabularies,  but  even 
a  superficial  survey  of  the  latter  showed  many  common  elements.  However,  a 
detailed  grammar  of  the  Aleut  language  in  its  three  dialects  has  been  worked  out 
and  'it  was  found  that  its  structure  is  based  on  the  word  formations  common  to 
Eskimo.  The  modification  of  the  Aleut  verb,  with  its  two  formal  processes  of  incor¬ 
poration  and  polysynthesis  characterizes,  perhaps  in  the  best  way,  the  Eskimo-like 
structure  of  the  Aleut  language. 

•  The  half-underground  dwellings,  the  skin  boat,  the  harpoon,  the  throwing- 
board  and  lances,  the  former  use  of  different  kinds  of  labrets,  the  method  of  dis¬ 
posal  of  the  dead,  the  use  of  paints  and  of  ceremonial  and  dancing  masks,  the 
woman’s  tailoring-knife,  fur  clothing,  and  other  objects  of  culture  bear  witness  to 
the  close  connection  of  Aleut  and  Eskimo  culture.  These  resemblances  are  indepen¬ 
dent  of  the  origin  of  Eskimo  culture,  whether  in  Hudson  Bay  or  elsewhere,  and  of 
the  items  of  Eskimo  culture  which  may  have  been  adopted  from  Siberian  or  other 
sources.  At  present  we  shall  consider  only  the  Aleut  cephalic  index,  one  of  the  most 
important  indices  of  physical  type. 

Of  the  79  Aleut  skulls  excavated,  only  50  were  sufficiently  complete  for  measur¬ 
ing.  They  gave  an  average  cephalic  index  of  82.1  with  a  standard  deviation  of  2.7  ; 
individually  the  cephalic  index  of  the  skulls  ranges  between  78  and  88.  As  all  the 
skulls  were  taken  from  graves  undoubtedly  of  the  pre-Russian  period,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  they  were  not  a  pure  race. 

The  measurements  of  138  living  people  (men  and  women)  gave  a  cephalic 
index  of  84,  with  a  standard  deviation  of  3.3,  as  individually  the  cephalic  index 

20  G.  M.  Dawson,  Geological  Notes  on  some  of  the  Coasts  and  Islands  of  Bering  Sea  and  Vicinity  (Bull. 
Geol.  Soc.  Am.,  vol.  5,  1894,  pp.  144,  145). 


116 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


ranges  from  76  to  94.  Thus,  we  see  that  mixture  with  the  Russians  did  not  influ¬ 
ence  the  head  measurements  of  the  Aleut.  According  to  Broca,  2  units  may  be  added 
to  the  cephalic  index  of  skulls  to  obtain  the  cephalic  index  of  the  living.  Adding 
2  units  to  82.1  (cephalic  index  of  our  Aleut  skulls)  we  have  84.1.  Thus,  we  see  that 
the  average  cephalic  index  of  ancient  Aleut  may  be  regarded  as  similar  to  the 
cephalic  index  of  the  present  Aleut.21 

If  we  compare  the  cephalic  index  of  the  Aleut  with  that  of  several  Eskimo 
groups,  Indians  nearest  to  them,  and  the  Palseasiatics,  we  shall  see  that  they  exceed 
all  of  them  with  reference  to  the  relative  width  of  the  head.  Thus,  the  Greenland 
Eskimo  show  a  dolichocephalic  index  of  76 ;  the  Alaska  and  Siberian  Eskimo  have  a 
mesocephalic  index  of  79  and  80,  respectively.  The  Koryak,  Kamchadal,  and 
Yukaghir  are  also  mesocephals  showing  cephalic  indices  of  78,  79,  and  80,  respec¬ 
tively.  The  Indian  tribes  nearest  to  the  Aleut,  the  Tlingit,  Tsimshian,  etc.,  have  a 
cephalic  index  not  exceeding  82. 

The  high  cephalic  index  of  the  Aleut  can  not  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  their 
blending  with  their  present  American  or  Asiatic  neighbors.  Two  possible  explana¬ 
tions  may  be  given.  First,  the  Aleut,  as  suggested  by  Doctor  Hrdlicka,22  became 
mixed  with  some  division  of  Athapascans  when,  as  a  branch  of  the  Eskimo  stock, 
they  came  to  the  Aleutian  Islands  at  a  time  when  a  part  of  some  Eskimo  group 
migrated  to  the  south  of  Alaska  from  the  place  of  origin  of  the  Eskimo  culture. 
Some  of  the  divisions  of  the  Athapascan  tribe  show  an  average  cephalic  index 
of  84. 23 

A  second  possibility  is  that  the  Aleut,  during  long  isolation  on  the  islands, 
gradually  acquired  a  superbrachycephalic  index.  The  much  discussed  observations 
of  Doctor  Boas  24  on  the  bodily  changes  of  American  immigrants  under  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  new  surroundings  and  nutrition  is  now  corroborated  by  Russian  anthro¬ 
pologists  who  investigated  the  somatic  changes  undergone  by  individuals  under  the 
influence  of  a  starvation  diet.25 

Turning  to  other  physical  traits,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  in  skin-color, 
broad  face-width,  and  Mongoloid  eyes,  some  of  the  Aleut  remind  us  more  of  Mon¬ 
golians  than  they  do  of  Palseasiatic  or  Indian  types.  Professor  Virchow,  who  mea¬ 
sured  some  Labrador  Eskimo  skulls,  pointed  out  the  Mongoloid  character  of  their 
facial  bones,  in  spite  of  the  dolichocephaly  of  the  skulls.26  This  is  equally  true  of  the 
physical  type  of  the  Aleut  who  have  a  brachycephalic  head  index.  However,  some 
Aleut  faces  bear  witness  to  mixture  with  Russians. 

21 1  wish  here  to  point  out,  however,  that  the  average  cephalic  index  of  27  skulls  collected  by  Doctor  Dali 
on  various  islands  of  the  Aleutian  Chain  is  84.3  (see  Dali,  On  Succession  in  the  Shell-Heaps  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  Washington,  1877,  PP-  66-68), 

22  In  a  discussion  of  a  paper  on  the  Aleut  read  by  the  author  at  a  meeting  of  the  Anthropological  Society 
of  Washington  in  December  1923. 

23  C.  Wissler,  The  American  Indian,  p.  330. 

24  F.  Boas,  Changes  in  Bodily  Form  of  Descendants  of  Immigrants,  New  York,  Columbia  University 
Press,  1912;  The  Head  Form  of  the  Italians  as  influenced  by  Heredity  and  Environment  (American  Anthro¬ 
pologist,  vol.  15,  April-June  1913,  pp.  163-188). 

26  Professor  A.  Ivanovsky,  Physical  Modifications  of  the  Population  of  Russia  under  Famine  (American 
Journal  of  Physical  Anthropology,  Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  October-November,  1923,  pp.  330-353). 

26  Rudolf  Virchow,  Eskimo  von  Labrador  (Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethnologie,  vol.  12,  Berlin,  1880). 


Archaeological  and  Ethnological  Inferences. 


117 


If  we  turn  now  to  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  the  description  of  the  pre¬ 
historic  objects  excavated,  there  appears  first  of  all  the  question  of  the  antiquity  of 
the  Aleut  kitchen  middens.  The  relative  antiquity  of  prehistoric  finds  is  generally 
judged  by  the  geological  strata  in  which  they  are  discovered,  by  the  presence  of 
bones  of  extinct  animals,  by  the  remains  of  vanished  plants,  by  the  skeletal  remains 
of  man,  and  finally  by  the  material,  shape,  and  types  of  implements  discovered. 

In  general,  all  shell-heaps  or  kitchen  remains  of  the  type  of  Danish  “  Kjokken- 
moddings,”  with  which  the  Aleutian  remains  may  be  ranked,  do  not  belong  to  very 
remote  geological  time.  Thus,  the  Danish  shell-heaps,  the  most  ancient  known,  even 
in  Europe,  belong  to  the  early  neolithic  or  protoneolithic  period  which  existed 
approximately  about  8000  B.  C.  This  is  proven  by  the  finding  of  shells  of  the 
so-called  Litorina  period,  charcoal  of  oaks  which  grew  at  that  period  and  are  now 
extinct,  and  bones  of  exterminated  animals,  such  as  the  wild  ox,  lynx,  beaver,  and 
wildcat.  The  coastal  accumulations  of  shell-heaps  in  France,  Portugal,  Ireland,  and 
other  European  countries  are  also  assigned  to  the  beginning  of  the  neolithic  age. 

Shell-heaps  in  the  New  World,  in  Brazil,  Patagonia,  Chile,  Louisiana,  Florida, 
California,  etc.,  belong  to  a  later  period,  since  the  mollusks,  fishes,  and  other  ani¬ 
mal  remains  found  belong  to  present-day  species.  Plowever,  some  data  have  come 
to  light  that  bear  witness  to  the  considerable  age  of  American  kitchen  middens. 

Thus,  for  instance,  the  investigation  of  some  of  the  California  shell-heaps 
showed  that  their  lower  layers  lie  several  feet  below  the  water-line.  The  shore-line 
has  been  slowly  sinking.  While  the  rate  of  depression  is  not  yet  known  with  cer¬ 
tainty,  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  infer  a  considerable  age  for  the  lower  layers. 

There  is  another  example.  The  lower  strata  of  the  shell-heaps  in  Florida  show, 
by  their  compactness  and  the  contraction  of  their  organic  substance,  a  considerable 
antiquity.  Huge  oaks  growing  on  the  surface  of  the  shell-heaps  show  that  the  latter 
were  accumulated  long  before  the  advent  of  Europeans.  Traces  of  different  types 
of  culture  bear  still  more  evidence  of  the  considerable  age  of  the  shell-heaps. 

The  Aleut  kitchen  middens,  like  the  other  American  shell-heaps,  belong  to  a 
recent  geological  period.  All  the  remains  of  animals  found  in  the  excavations  belong 
to  species  still  living.  Although  some  of  the  ancient  village  sites  seem  to  be  slightly 
above  sea-level,  no  marked  changes  were  discovered  on  the  surface.  Some  of  the 
ancient  village  sites  are  found  near  smoking  volcanoes,  but  the  foundations  of  the 
villages  evidently  were  begun  after  the  volcanoes  ceased  their  destructive  activities. 

Unfortunately,  we  have  no  definite  criterion  by  which  to  determine  the  length 
of  time  necessary  for  the  accumulation  of  the  shell-heaps  on  the  Islands.  There  are 
even  no  trees  to  give  us  an  idea  of  the  time  of  their  growth.  The  calculations  made 
by  Doctor  Dali  as  to  the  age  of  separate  layers  are  founded,  as  has  been  mentioned 
before,  on  incorrect  estimates  and  on  a  faulty  conception  of  the  strata.  Neverthe¬ 
less,  the  extreme  age  of  many  Aleut  shell-heaps  is  shown  by  the  following  data. 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  many  of  the  lower  layers  were  found  decayed 
kitchen  remains,  and  the  bones  of  whale’s  jaws,  which  consist  of  bone  of  a  particu¬ 
lar  hardness.  In  many  places,  where  decayed  bones  of  other  animals  were  found, 


118  Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 

whale’s  bones  were  so  well  preserved  that  the  Aleut  carved  from  them  arrow-heads, 
points,  and  other  objects  which  are  in  our  collection.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  point 
out  that  whale’s  bones  which  have  crumbled  into  soft  powder  were  found  in  deep- 
lying  layers  of  kitchen  middens  which  consisted  mostly  of  shells  of  echini  and  mol- 
lusks,  where  sedimentary  waters  were  not  retained.  Thus  they  could  have  only  a 
slow  effect  on  the  decay  of  the  whale’s  bones.  Other  factors  furthering  the  process 
of  decay,  as  oxygen,  light,  and  heat  of  the  sun  could  not  effect  them  at  all. 

The  depth  of  some  of  the  shell-heaps  which  reached  to  6.5  meters  may  also  demon¬ 
strate  their  considerable  age.  A  long  period  of  time  was  necessary  for  the  accumu¬ 
lation  of  such  heaps  of  kitchen  refuse. 

We  will  consider,  for  example,  the  Agla'gax'  village  site,  where  the  depth  of 
cultural  layers  reached  6.5  meters.  This  site,  taking  into  consideration  all  the  traces 
of  dwellings  and  other  pits,  occupied  16,800  square  meters  (about  140  meters  long 
and  about  120  meters  wide.  If,  considering  the  unevenness  of  the  surface,  we  should 
take  the  average  depth  of  kitchen  midden  for  the  whole  village  as  5  meters,  then 
the  strata  containing  kitchen  refuse  will  form  84,000  cubic  meters  or  about  74,372 
tons  (counting  a  ton  not  by  weight  but  by  volume,  equal  to  1.13  cubic  meters).  It  is 
true  that  one-third  of  the  volujne  is  occupied  by  earth  with  which  kitchen  remains 
are  mixed,  but  we  must  remember  that  kitchen  middens  do  not  contain  all  the  refuse 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  sites.  A  considerable  number  of  the  animals  killed  were 
eaten  at  the  killing-places  or  in  caves  in  which  the  hunters  took  shelter  when  they 
were  overtaken  by  tempests  and  gales. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  before  that  the  ancient  villages  were  located  on  open 
isthmuses.  In  summer,  to  catch  the  migrating  fishes,  the  people  had  to  go  to  the  river 
valleys,  where  they  spent  several  months,  and  there  they  lived  on  salmon. 

It  is  also  of  interest  to  point  out  that  among  the  bones  of  aquatic  mammals 
found  in  the  shell-heaps  the  skull-bones  were  missing,  except  for  the  lower  jaws  of 
whales,  which  served  as  posts  and  beams  for  the  earth  dwellings.  The  absence  of 
the  skull-bones  of  sea  mammals  may  be  explained  by  the  religious  attitude  of  the 
ancient  Aleut  to  the  animals  hunted.  The  skulls  were  thrown  back  into  the  sea 
in  the  belief  that  the  animals  would  come  to  life  again  or,  as  a  mark  of  honor,  they 
were  set  up  on  elevated  places,  where  they  were  allowed  to  decay.  According  to 
Krasheninnikoff,27  the  Aleut  carefully  gathered  all  the  bones  of  the  sea  animal  first 
killed  on  a  hunting  trip  and  threw  them  back  into  the  sea.  So  we  see  from  the  fore¬ 
going  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  kitchen  remains  did  not  reach  the  shell  heaps. 

The  volume  of  the  kitchen  remains  has  been  further  reduced  from  the  original 
as  a  result  of  the  working  of  other  factors.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  mammal- 
bones,  and  those  of  birds  and  fishes,  have  fully  decayed  and  their  components  have 
mingled  with  the  soil  or  they  have  been  carried  into  the  sea  by  subsurface  waters. 

In  our  sections  there  often  occurred,  between  strata  containing  kitchen  refuse, 
narrow,  horizontal  layers  of  black  earth.  Formerly  these  layers  were,  perhaps  dur¬ 
ing  long  periods,  the  upper  soil,  which  afterwards  became  covered  with  shells  of 


27  H.  Krasheninnikoff,  The  description  of  Kamchatka,  Vol.  II,  p.  291.  (In  Russian.) 


Archaeological  and  Ethnological  Inferences. 


119 


echini,  mollusks,  and  other  kitchen  remains.  In  the  course  of  decay,  the  latter  added 
mold  to  the  soil. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  ancient  Aleut  settlements  were  not  very 
populous.  The  Aleut  tu'kux  (i.  e.,  master,  elder,  chief)  often  ruled  over  only  a  few 
families  of  relatives,  consisting  of  40  to  60  people,  inhabiting  two  or  three  earth 
dwellings.  That  many  more  pits  were  found  at  all  ancient  village  sites  than  would 
account  for  two  or  three  dwellings  does  not  mean  that  all  the  pits  were  inhabited  at 
one  time.  Settlements  with  a  population  of  200  to  400  men  were  established  by  the 
Russian  conquerors,  who  segregated  small  scattered  groups  of  Aleut  hunters  in  cer¬ 
tain  spots  in  order  to  facilitate  control  over  them. 

Thus  the  remains  of  millions  of  echini  and  mollusca  were  accumulated  on  the 
ancient  village  sites  by  a  very  small  number  of  inhabitants.  Besides,  the  same  small, 
group  of  people  often  had  a  separate  summer  settlement  in  some  river-valley,  not 
far  from  the  river-mouth,  and  the  kitchen  remains  were  heaped  up  only  during  cer¬ 
tain  seasons  and  not  in  the  course  of  a  whole  year. 

All  the  foregoing  considerations  fail  to  give  us  a  definite  measure  of  time  which 
could  be  expressed  in  figures;  nevertheless,  they  show  clearly  that  the  Aleut  came 
to  the  islands  many  centuries  ago,  if  not  during  the  earliest  period  of  the  peopling  of 
northwestern  America. 

We  may  turn  now  to  the  question  of  the  degree  of  culture  possessed  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  islands  who  left  us  the  remains  of  their  food,  manufactures,  and 
dead.  Of  course,  the  Aleut  of  the  shell-heaps  lived  in  the  Stone  Age,  but  in  what 
phase  of  that  period?  In  this  case  the  question  concerns  the  degree  of  culture  and 
not  a  period  of  time.  Up  to  the  present  time  it  is  only  in  the  prehistoric  archaeology 
of  western  Europe  that  a  definite  correlation  has  been  established  between  stages 
of  primitive  culture  and  time  periods,  between  types  of  implements  and  other  traces 
of  man’s  activities  and  the  age  of  the  geologic  strata  or  the  fossils  accompanying 
them.  Such  a  corresponding  parallelism  does  not  occur  in  the  prehistoric  remains 
of  regions  retarded  in  their  cultural  development.  A  few  centuries  ago  the  Aleut 
were  in  the  same  stage  of  culture  as  the  prehistoric  Western  Europeans  were  thou¬ 
sands  of  years  ago.  But  considering  only  the  stage  of  civilization,  without  regard 
to  the  time  element,  we  are  allowed  or  even  obliged  to  make  use  of  the  terminology 
established  by  the  archaeologists  of  Western  Europe  when  referring  to  prehistory 
of  backward  tribes.  Even  though  until  some  80  years  ago  implements  of  the  Stone 
Age  were  not  definitely  classified  and  German  archaeologists  combated  the  con¬ 
clusions  of  Danish  archaeologists  that  the  Bronze  Age  preceded  that  if  Iron,28  nowa¬ 
days  no  one  hesitates  to  acknowledge  the  fact  that  the  evolution  of  primitive 

28  It  should  be  noted,  however,  with  particular  reference  to  Africa,  that  the  late  Professor  von  Luschan 
contended  that  this  continent  was  not  only  the  place  of  origin  of  iron  technics,  but  that  the  negroes  knew  the  art 
of  smelting  iron  before  they  began  the  manufacture  of  bronze  (see  Felix  von  Luschan,  Eisente chnik  in  Afrika, 
in  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologie,  Band  41,  Berlin,  1909;  Volker,  Rassen,  Sprachen,  Berlin,  1922,  p.  5).  On  the  other 
hand,  Doctor  Foy  combats  the  contention  of  Professor  von  Luschan  that  Africa  is  the  place  of  origin  of  iron 
smelting  and  the  blacksmith’s  art  (see  W.  Foy,  Zur  Geschichte  dcr  Eisentechnik,  und  besonders  des  Gebldses. 
Ethnologica,  Im  Auftrage  des  Vereins  zur  Forderung  des  Stadtischen  Rautenstrauch-Joest  Museums  fur  Volker- 
kunde  in  Coin.  Vol.  I,  Leipzig,  1909,  pp.  185-222). 


9 


120 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


techniques  proceeded  everywhere  in  one  and  the  same  manner,  beginning  with  the 
use  of  unworked  boulders  and  ending  with  carefully  polished  axes  and  knives.  Thus, 
to  judge  by  the  types  of  stone  implements  of  the  ancient  Aleut  and  by  the  methods 
of  manufacture,  the  Aleut  of  the  Shell-Heap  period  had  already  entered  the  neo¬ 
lithic  age  or  age  of  polished  stone  implements.  This  may  be  corroborated  by  the 
specialization  of  forms  for  stone  knives  and  points  for  throwing-weapons,  by  the 
use  of  bone  flakers,  by  finds  of  stone  points  with  serrated  edges,  made  by  the  retouch¬ 
ing  method,  by  the  use  of  the  bow,  and  by  the  presence  in  the  excavations  of  polished 
stone  implements  and  lamps. 

On  the  other  hand,  even  in  the  upper  layers  were  found  rudely  chipped  stone 
implements,  reminding  us  of  Solutrian,  Mousterian,  or  even  Acheulian  flint 
weapons.  A  few  polished-stone  objects  were  found.  The  polished-stone  adzes  and 
chisels,  some  of  which  have  been  previously  illustrated,  were  ground  only  on  their 
edges.  Although  everywhere  we  find  that  the  use  of  crude  chipped  implements  fol¬ 
lows  the  invention  of  polishing  methods,  we  may  nevertheless  state  that  the  neo¬ 
lithic  culture  among  the  Aleut  had  not  been  fully  developed  before  their  first  meeting 
with  the  Russians. 

The  absence  of  large  stone  axes  may  be  explained  by  the  complete  absence  of 
growing  trees.  For  splitting  pieces  or  logs  of  driftwood  along  their  length,  bone 
wedges  and  stone  hammers  were  sufficient,  and  for  chopping  these  splinters  they  used 
stone  adzes.  The  only  stone  implement  which  could  be  termed  an  ax  is  shown  on 
figure  26,  plate  15. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  number  of  stone  adzes  found  in  the  excavations  was 
exceedingly  small.  Among  the  1,500  Stone  Age  objects  obtained  on  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  only  15  stone  adzes  were  discovered.  In  his  extensive  diggings,  Doctor  Dali 
found  only  1  adze.29  This  can  not  be  ascribed  to  accident  alone.  It  seems  that  the 
Aleut  rarely  used  even  the  adze.  In  manufacturing  bone  and  wooden  objects  they 
used  the  large  stone  knives  described  above.  Nevertheless,  it  should  be  added  that 
we  found  many  traces  of  bone  worked  with  adzes. 

As  has  been  stated  before,  in  the  lowest  layers  of  the  kitchen  middens  were 
found  vestiges  of  underground  dwellings  in  the  shape  of  lower  jaws  of  whales,  and 
we  are  justified  in  inferring  from  this  that  the  Aleut  were  already  acquainted  with 
the  building  of  underground  dwellings  upon  their  arrival  in  the  islands.  It  should 
be  pointed  out,  however,  that  no  skeletal  remains  were  found  in  the  lower  layers  of 
kitchenmiddens.  We  must  admit  that  at  the  time  of  their  settling  on  the  islands  the 
Aleut  placed  their  dead  in  caves  only  or  in  burial  huts  above  ground,  and  these 
decayed  leaving  no  traces. 

The  close  cultural  connection  between  the  Aleut  and  the  Eskimo  has  been 
remarked  before.  It  should  be  added  that  the  typical  large  woman’s  slate  tailoring- 
knife  called  u'lu  occurred  in  all  the  excavations  on  the  Aleutian  Islands.  The  Aleut 
called  it  iga'dax\ 

29  W.  H.  Dali,  On  Succession  in  the  Shell-Heaps  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  (Contributions  to  North  Ameri¬ 
can  Ethnology,  vol.  I,  Washington,  1877,  p.  81). 


Archaeological  and  Ethnological  Inferences. 


121 


The  methods  of  ornamentation  of  bone  objects,  by  engraving  with  stone  gravers 
and  awls,  notches,  parallel  lines,  dots,  zigzags,  circles,  and  other  geometrical  pat¬ 
terns,  filled  with  paints  of  different  colors,  are  the  same  as  among  the  Eskimo.  Of 
Eskimo  type  are  also  the  present-day  Aleut  realistic  representation  of  animals  on 
bone  objects  and  the  realistic  carvings  in  bone  and  wood. 

The  particular  climatic  conditions  in  the  Aleut  country  and  the  formation  of 
the  islands  contributed  some  specific  traits  to  their  material  culture.  As  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  hunted  only  sea  animals,  mainly  from  skin  boats,  the  use  of  the  bow  was  very 
limited.  The  darts  cast  at  sea  mammals  by  means  of  a  throwing-board  were  very 
light,  so  that  they  could  be  thrown  with  the  right  hand,  while,  with  the  left,  the 
hunter  steadied  the  boat,  holding  the  double  paddle  with  the  left  hand  across  the  skin 
boat.  For  stringing  a  bow  the  use  of  both  hands  is  necessary.  Besides,  the  bow¬ 
string  recoils  when  it  is  released,  and  if  used  in  the  light  skin  boat  it  might  capsize. 
Eskimo  hunters  use  the  bow  only  when  hunting  land  animals  which  will  not  stand, 
and  the  force  of  throwing-weapons  when  in  flight  is  considerably  less  than  that  of 
the  arrow  shot  from  the  bow.  According  to  the  present  Aleut,  their  ancestors  used  the 
bow  almost  exclusively  in  war  when  the  party  on  land  met  assailants  nearing  an 
island  in  boats.  The  Aleut  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  however,  used  the  bow  in 
hunting  wild  reindeer,  bears,  and  other  land  animals.  At  present  the  Aleut  do  not 
use  the  bow  at  all.  According  to  information  obtained  from  the  Umnak  people,  the 
old  Aleut  bow  was  of  small  size.  The  staff  was  about  a  yard  long  and  the  arrows 
were  thin,  with  small  stone  points.30  The  staff  consisted  of  one  piece  of  curved  wood, 
rarely  backed.  In  Captain  Chirikov’s  report  on  his  voyage  with  the  second  Bering 
expedition  there  is  a  drawing  of  an  Aleut  bow.31  Its  length  is  not  given,  and  in 
comparison  with  other  objects  shown  on  the  plate,  it  is  small,  but  it  appears  to  be  a 
composite  bow,  backed  with  sinew  and  double-curved.  In  studying32  the  weapons 
of  the  Eskimo  and  Aleut,  I  found  in  the  Museum  of  the  American  Indian  some  bow- 
staves  catalogued  as  Aleut.  Their  authenticity,  however,  is  doubtful,  since  the  locali¬ 
ties  where  they  were  collected  are  not  specified.  In  one  case  the  locality  is  given  as 
Woody  Island,  but  this  island  is  located  near  Kodiak  Island  and  inhabited  by  Kodiak 
people  and  not  by  Aleut. 

The  Aleut  methods  of  hunting  sea  mammals  do  not  correspond  entirely  to  those 
of  the  Eskimo.  As  the  sea  surrounding  the  islands  does  not  freeze,  the  Aleut  were 
not  acquainted  with  the  Eskimo  method  of  hunting  aquatic  mammals  through  ice- 
holes  or  from  floating  ice-cakes.  Therefore  some  of  the  Eskimo  winter  hunting 
implements  were  not  developed  among  the  Aleut.  These  were  the  composite  double 
fore-shafted  bow,  hooks  for  catching  ice-blocks,  ice-scrapers,  bone  picks  for  making 
ice-holes,  snow-knives,  snow-beaters,  snow-shovels,  ice-scoops,  snow-goggles,  and 
snowshoes.  No  crescentic  lamps  and  no  bridges  for  the  wicks  were  found.  The 

30  See  above,  text-figures  16  e  to  h  (p.  60)  and  plate  25,  figs.  19,  20,  33,  35,  and  3 7. 

31  Bering’s  Voyages,  by  F.  A.  Golder,  edition  of  the  American  Geographical  Society,  New  York,  1922, 
p.  304,  fig-  4- 

32  For  that  purpose  the  collections  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
the  Peabody  Museum  of  Harvard  University,  the  University  Museum  of  Philadelphia,  and  the  Museum  of  the 
American  Indian,  Heye  Foundation,  were  examined. 


122 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Aleut  did  not  cook  over  the  lamps.  As  a  result  of  the  absence  of  driving  dogs  and 
sledges,  the  only  means  for  moving  from  one  rookery  or  hunting-place  to  another  is 
the  skin  boat  or  i'qyax \  a  word  very  similar  to  the  Eskimo  qa'yax '.  Sometimes  the 
Aleut  hunter  walks  from  one  rookery  to  another. 

Eskimo  pottery  consisted  of  vessels  and  lamps  of  burned  clay.  This  also  was 
not  adopted  by  the  Aleut,  possibly  as  a  result  of  the  absence  of  clay.  The  ancient 
Aleut,  however,  consumed  food  either  raw  or  roasted  on  stone  frying-pans,  but  not 
cooked.  During  all  our  diggings  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  we  found  only  one  unbaked 
clay  lamp  ;  and  this  fell  to  pieces  at  the  first  touch.  The  same  has  been  reported  by 
Doctor  Dali,  who  also  found  a  lamp  made  of  unbaked  clay  33  in  a  cave  at  Nazan  Bay 
on  Atka;  this  had  also  disintegrated. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  Aleut,  when  peopling  the  Aleutian  Islands  from 
the  American  continent,  must  have  been  already  in  possession  of  skin  boats,  stone 
and  bone  lamps,  throwing-darts,  and  other  stone  and  bone  implements.  It  must, 
however,  be  admitted  that  to  a  certain  degree  the  technique  of  the  Aleut  improved 
after  their  arrival  in  the  islands.  For  instance,  many  bone  heads  for  fishing-spears 
were  found  in  the  lower  layers,  while  bone  sections  of  the  composite  fish-hook  were 
discovered  chiefly  in  the  upper  layers.  Polished  stone  lamps  and  adzes  were  also 
found  mainly  in  the  upper  layers.  The  rainproof  part  of  the  Aleut  kayak-man’s 
costume  called  sutux ' 34  seems  to  be  an  Aleut  invention. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  Aleut  had  some  culture  traits  in  common  with 
the  Indians  of  the  northwest  coast,  such  as  the  use  of  the  labret,  face  painting,  and 
other  decoration.  In  general,  we  may  say  that  the  cultural,  spiritual,  and  physical 
traits  of  the  Aleut  show  closest  connection  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  American 
continent  and  not  with  those  of  Asia. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  I  wish  to  add  that  I  do  not  regard  the  study  of  Aleut 
archaeology  as  a  finished  piece  of  work.  Under  cover  of  the  earth  are  still  many 
remains  of  great  interest  in  solving  the  details  of  the  prehistoric  life  of  the  Aleut. 
These  remains  may  supplement  my  conclusions  or  alter  them,  but  it  would  neverthe¬ 
less  be  desirable  to  make  some  further  excavations.  For  this  reason  I  regard  it  as 
my  duty  to  indicate  those  ancient  village  sites  and  burial  caves  on  the  Aleutian 
Islands  which  were  inaccessible  to  me,  but  which  may  be  explored  in  the  future. 

( 1 )  On  Agatu  Island  is  a  grotto-like  cave  on  the  walls  of  which  are  many  figures  repre¬ 
senting  woman’s  sexual  part.  They  were  made  by  a  shaman  named  Hani'kax',  which  means 
“  The  one  who  is  standing  on  the  water’s  surface.”  Told  by  the  Attu  Aleut Philaret  Prokopyeff 
and  Michael  Prosoff. 

(2)  On  Simichi  Island  are  traces  of  village  sites  and  a  burial-cave  where  remains  of 
painted  wooden  masks  are  preserved.  Told  by  the  Aleut  Ivan  Artamonoff  and  Yegor 
Khudyakoff,  of  Attu  Island. 

(3)  On  the  eastern  end  of  Amlia  Island  is  a  burial  cave. 

(4)  On  Tanaga  and  Kanaga  Islands  are  traces  of  large  ancient  village  sites  with 
burial-caves. 

33  W.  H.  Dali,  On  Succession  in  the  Shell-Heaps  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  p.  80,  fig.  13021. 

34  See  above,  pp.  99  (text-figures  103  and  104)  and  100.  I  wish  to  add,  however,  that  I  was  told  that  the 
Kodiak  people  also  used  the  su’tux '. 


Archaeological  and  Ethnological  Inferences. 


123 


(5)  On  Ilax  is  a  burial-cave  extending  the  whole  width  of  the  island.  Information  on 
Amlia,  Tanaga,  Kanaga,  and  Ilax  was  given  by  the  Atka  Aleut  Peter  Khoroshoff,  Leonty 
Snegireff,  Michael  Mershenin,  and  Yegor  Peshenkoff. 

(6)  On  Kagam-Ilan  there  is  another  burial-cave,  in  the  rock  above  the  cave  from  which 
Captain  Henning  obtained  mummies  and  other  objects  described  by  Doctor  Dali.85  To  get 
access  to  the  upper  cave  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  ladder  about  3  fathoms  long,  since  it  is  located 
on  a  steep  rock.  More  mummies  could  be  obtained  in  this  cave.  The  entrance  to  the  cave  is 
shielded  by  a  high  threshold  of  whale  bones. 

(7)  On  Ulagan  Island  there  is  a  burial-cave  in  which  the  mummies  of  a  man  and  his 
wife  were  placed. 

(8)  There  is  a  burial-cave  on  Samalga  Island.  Information  concerning  the  last  three 
islands,  situated  to  the  southwest  of  Umnak,  was  given  by  the  former  chief  of  Umnak,  Cyril 
Yermiloff. 

In  enumerating  the  localities  where  he  observed  ancient  village  sites,  Doctor 
Dali  remarks  that  on  the  islands  to  the  east  of  Unalaska,  shell-heaps  are  particu¬ 
larly  numerous.  This  is  also  true  concerning  some  localities  on  the  Alaska  Penin¬ 
sula,  as  Port  Moller.36  It  must  be  admitted  that  in  localities  where  land  mammals 
were  hunted,  the  composition  of  kitchen  remains  may  differ  in  some  respects  from 
that  on  the  islands  where  our  excavations  were  made. 

Professor  Dixon,  in  discussing  North  American  archaeology,37  states  that  exca¬ 
vations  on  the  western  shores  show  everywhere  a  uniform  culture  and  in  all  layers 
skeletal  remains  of  one  type.  This  may  be  true  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  but  as  far 
as  it  concerns  the  archaeology  of  the  western  coast,  from  the  Seward  Peninsula  to 
the  territory  of  the  Tlingit  to  the  south,  the  statement  should  be  corroborated  by 
actual  excavations,  because  there  may  have  been  an  occupation  of  this  territory  by 
Indians  before  the  Eskimo  wandered  south  of  Bering  Strait. 

Perhaps  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  mention  here  that  in  one  respect  the  exca¬ 
vations  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  were  greatly  facilitated.  In  winter  the  ground 
freezes  to  the  depth  of  a  foot,  sometimes  even  less,  and  sometimes  not  at  all.  Thus 
excavations  may  be  made  the  year  round.  The  specimens  in  the  deeper  layers  are  not 
subject  to  decay  as  far  as  it  may  be  the  result  of  continued  freezing  and  thawing. 
On  the  continent,  and  particularly  in  the  Arctic  regions,  conditions  for  digging  are 
quite  different.  There  the  ground  thaws  out  only  late  in  the  summer  and  regular 
diggings  can  be  made  only  in  August  and  September.  Such,  at  least,  was  our  experi¬ 
ence  in  northeastern  Siberia. 

35  See  above,  p.  45. 

36  W.  H.  Dali,  On  Succession  in  the  Shell  Heaps  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  (Contributions  to  American 
Ethnology,  vol.  1,  1877,  p.  45). 

37  R.  B.  Dixon,  Some  Aspects  of  North  American  Archceology  (American  Anthropologist,  n.  s.,  vol.  15, 
1913,  PP-  549-577)- 


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GLOSSARY  OF  ALEUT  WORDS. 


The  following  alphabet  is  used  in  transcribing  Aleut 
words : 

a,  i,  u,  have  their  continental  sounds. 
a,  i,  ii,  long  vowels. 
i,  short,  almost  a  semivowel. 

a£,  i€,  ue,  like  a,  i,  u,  with  a  deep  laryngeal  intonation. 
b  and  p,  bi-labials,  used  only  in  the  Attu  dialect  and  are 
pronounced  by  a  very  slight  closure  of  the 
lips  so  that  we  have  transient  sounds 
between  b  and  v  and  p  and  f. 

c,  an  intermediate  sound  between  English  ch  and  Ger¬ 

man  c  in  ceder. 

d,  like  English  th  in  those, 
g,  like  g  in  good. 

g,  as  an  uvular  g. 

h,  as  in  English,  used  in  the  Aleut  dialect. 

k,  as  in  German. 

k',  k  with  a  spirant  added. 

l,  as  in  English. 

V,  anterior  palatal  sound. 

m,  as  in  English. 

n,  as  in  English. 
n-,  a  palatal  soft  n. 

h,  with  strong  nasalization. 
h,  n  combined  with  a  velar  g. 
q,  a  uvular  k. 

x,  like  ch  in  German  Bach. 

x',  has  a  spirant  added  (gehauchter  Absatz  of  Sievers). 
t,  as  in  English. 

t',  is  t  closure  continued  same  time  before  explosion, 
only  terminal  with  strong  aspiration. 

I,  is  used  in  the  Attu  dialect  only ;  it  is  a  cerebral  sound, 
the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  turned  back. 
tl,  lateral  affricative  sound  used  only  in  the  Atka 
dialect. 

hiw,  like  English  wh  in  where. 

y,  like  English  y  as  a  consonant. 

z,  used  in  the  Atka  dialect  only. 


Words  of  the  Attu  dialect  are  marked  with  an  asterisk. 
*Ablula' six' ,  spoon.  See  at gu’ six'. 

Adgu’six',  shovel.  See  asuga'six'. 

Aga’dax',  bow  arrow. 

Aga’lgix',  large  harpoon. 

Aga'lux',  tooth,  tusk. 

Agama'xcix',  small  species  of  whale. 

Agayux',  urile  ( Phalacrocorax  urile). 

Agi'sax ',  observatory  hill  on  which  a  guard  was  kept. 
A'gix',  a  game  consisting  in  throwing  up  with  one 
hand  three  or  four  round  stones  one  after  another 
and  catching  them  in  the  same  hand. 

Agla'gax',  ancient  village  site,  Umnak  Island. 
*Agalga'yax',  harpoon  for  hunting  seals  and  fur-seals. 
See  cuyini'lgix' . 

Agli’gax',  albatross  ( Diomedes  albatros  Pallas). 


Agu'gim-qd.  See  sxix,  fish  species  of  Hexagrammus. 

Agu'nax sea-urchin  ( Strongilocentratus  drcebachien- 
sis  Mull.). 

Agu'six ',  implement,  tool. 

Agya'x,  whale  species.' 

Aka'gdax'.  See  i'nklux. 

Akagu'  six' ,  compound  harpoon. 

A'kax',  bird  quills  which  cover  the  lashing  of  the  two 
bone  sections  of  a  fishing-hook. 

*Akli’gax',  harpoon  provided  with  a  bladder. 

Akli'gix',  small  harpoon. 

Ala' max,  a  small  whale. 

Ali'txum  igiqd',  war  throwing-lance.  See  anga'gim 
igiqd'. 

Ali'txux',  war. 

Alu’six',  needle. 

Amdi’xtix',  vesicular  andesite  lava. 

Amgi'gnax ',  sentry,  sentinel. 

Ami' dux' ,  root.  See  antami'kux'. 

Ah,  long  line  of  sinew  threads  attached  to  the  harpoon 
head. 

Anagna'sin,  ornamental  engravings,  decorations;  lineal 
ornamentation. 

Ana'tix ',  property  mark  (on  weapons  and  implements). 

Anga'gim  igiqd' ,  throwing-spear  for  man.  See  ali'txum 
igiqd'. 

Anga'gix',  man. 

*A'nqim  camtasl' ,  bone  scraper  for  removing  meat  and 
fat  from  guts  in  dressing.  See  qitqi'six '. 

An.gu’qax ',  large  bone  wedge  for  splitting  logs.  See 
qu’xsux'. 

An.’kix ',  hard  schists  (hornstone  and  quartz  schists). 

An'nax,  club,  stick  for  clubbing.  See  *Sagiy agu'six'. 

Antami'kux',  the  root  ami' dux'  attached  to  a  bone 
fishing-hook  as  a  magical  attraction. 

Anugna’sin  (plural  from  anugna! six') ,  ornamental 
figures  in  general. 

A’nux,  salmon  nerka  ( Oncorhynchus  lycaodon) . 

A’nux ',  stone  or  bone  lamp.  See  i'xtax'. 

Aqa'nax',  compound  bone  fishing-hook  (ancient  name). 
See  u'xtax'. 

Asuga'six.  See  adgu'six'. 

Asxinan,  the  dead. 

At  gu' six',  spoon.  See  ablu'lasix'. 

*Atki'yax,  cod  ( Gadus  macrocephalus  Til.).  See  atxi'- 
dax '. 

Atxi’dax'.  See  atki'yax. 

Axsila' six' ,  bone  awl.  See  isila'six'  and  si'lax'. 

A'xsix',  hematite;  objects  supposed  to  have  miraculous 
power.  See  ca’gax'. 

Aya’kux',  bone  fishing-spear. 

Ayasa’gax ',  bladdered  harpoon. 

*Ayigi'gix',  a  species  of  whale. 

Ayukda’gim  saxsi’da,  head  of  the  small  harpoon 
ayukda'x.  See  saxsi'dax '. 

Ayukda’x ',  small  harpoon. 


129 


130 


Archaeological  Investigations  in  Aleutian  Islands. 


Ca'gax',  hematite.  See  a'xsix 
Cagli'six See  iga'cim  ciglisl. 

Cagya'six '.  See  qu'qsux '. 

Ca'lax ',  mollusk  ( Mactra  ponderosa  Phil.  s.  Ovalis 
Sav.). 

Canaya' six' ,  a  small  bone  crutch  attached  to  the  keel  of 
the  skin  boat  on  which  the  upper  rails  of  the  frame 
of  an  ancient  skin  boat  were  resting. 

*Capta'six',  bone  scraper  for  dressing  guts. 

Ca'qix',  halibut  ( Hippoglossoides  elassodon  Jord.  a. 
Gilb.). 

Cata’sim  kada'nin,  prongs  of  a  bird-dart. 

Cata'sin,  cata'sim  kada'nin. 

Cata'six ',  bird-dart. 

Ca’tux',  bone  flaker  for  retouching  stone  implements. 
Catu'six'.  See  ca'tux '. 

Cax',  arm. 

*Ca' xtux' ,  sea  otter  ( Enhydris  marina).  See  cha’tux'. 
Caxu’six ',  bone  digger  of  edible  roots.  See  igu’lax'. 
Cayu'sux,  a  species  of  wild  duck,  black.  See  sa’kux ' 
and  qa'bsax'. 

Ci'dax',  a  small  whale  species. 

Ci'gdum  anugana! ,  clay  lamp.  See  a'nux'. 

Ci'gdux',  clay. 

Cigu'nix',  microgranular  andesitic  lava ;  whetstone  of 
microgranular  andesitic  lava. 

*Ciki'cax.  See  ci'knax'. 

Ci'knax',  mollusk  {Acmasa  patina  Esch.). 

Cimcili' six' ,  tooth-pick. 

*Cimi'gix'.  See  cimka’yux'. 

Cimi’tix ',  stopper. 

Cimiyu’ six' .  See  cimi'tix'. 

Cimka'yux,  mollusk  ( Litorina  sitchana  Mid.).  See 
cimi'gix'. 

Ci’xtim  umusV.  See  umu’six'. 

Ci’xtix ',  drill. 

*Ciyu’sim  again’,  bone  squeezer  of  a  sewing-stand.  See 
ciyu'six',  aga’lux'. 

*Ciyu'six' ,  wooden  sewing-stand. 

Cmix',  pulp-cavity  of  a  tooth,  tusk,  or  other  bone. 
Cha'tum  unnV  qagna' ,  bone  of  sea-otter’s  penis.  See 
cha'tux',  u’nhix',  qa'gnax'. 

Cha'tux',  sea-otter  ( Enhydris  marina).  See  ca'xtux'. 
Cu'dux',  lineal  ornament. 

Cuktu'six',  implement  for  polishing  stone  implements 
and  lamps  of  microgranular  andesitic  lava. 
Cu’mix,  dots,  ornament. 

CumW six' ,  whetstone  for  polishing  implements. 
Cu’han,  dam  or  weir  of  a  river. 

Cuha'sin,  general  name  for  ornamental  engravings  on 
implements. 

Cu'fiax',  rod  of  a  dam  or  weir;  ornamental  notch. 
Cuniga'sim  again',  prong  of  an  implement  for  catching 
sea-urchins. 

Cuniga!  six ',  implement  for  catching  sea-urchins. 
Cuni'lgix' ,  head  of  a  large  harpoon ;  throwing-lance 
(Atka). 

Cu’hlux' ,  flat  frying-stone. 

Cunu'six ',  large  man’s  knife  of  andesite. 

Cu’sux',  mollusk  ( Modiola  modiolus  L.).  See  kyux. 
Cuyini'lgix,  point  of  the  harpoon  called  akli’gix'. 

Duxta'dax ',  bone  hook  for  a  fishing-line. 

Halac’a,  ancient  village  site  on  Atka  Island. 

Hi'nix'.  See  ie'nix'. 

Hinkilu'gim  ca,  stone  for  grinding  paints.  See  ikica'six', 
cax',  hinku'lux'. 


Hinku’lux',  flat  large  stone  on  which  paints  were 
ground. 

Hi'xtax' ,  species  of  whale.  See  ie'xtax'. 

Hwa’yigix',  mollusk  ( Mytilus  edulis  L.).  See  ma'- 
yigix'. 

*Iblaga'six,  bone  back-scratcher. 

Icimi'klux '  (Atka).  See  qusi'dax'. 

Iduga'yax' ,  kind  of  a  throwing-lance. 

Iga'cim  caglisi'  or  *iga'cim  caglimaga'ca,  awl  for  split¬ 
ting  sinews  into  threads. 

Iga'cix ',  sinew. 

Iga’dax ',  woman’s  tailoring-knife. 

I'gax,  slate. 

Igda'kax',  drill. 

*Igi’kam  qagna',  bone  foreshaft  of  the  harpoon,  igi'- 

.  kax'. 

*Igi’kax' ,  simple  harpoon. 

Igi’qax' ,  barbed  bone  head  of  a  spear  without  the  stone 
point ;  any  throwing-spear ;  bone  belt  on  the  shaft 
of  throwing-weapons. 

I'glax',  shaft  of  throwing-weapons  and  arrows. 

Igu'lax '.  See  caxu'six 

Ikica'six',  stone  grinder  for  paints.  See  hinkilu'gim 
ca! . 

Imlaga! six' .  See  iblaga'six'  and  qaku’qix'. 

Ie’nix',  grass  wick  of  a  stone  lamp.  See  hi'nix'. 

I’nklux,  sinew  cord  of  a  fishing-line. 

Iqu'lux',  Aleut  name  for  Lastova  Bay,  Attu  Island. 

*Isila'six'.  See  axsilasix'. 

l’sux,  large  seal  species  ( Erignatus  barbatus). 

Itmagu’ six' ,  stone  hammer  for  rude  flaking  of  stone 
implements. 

Itxu'sin,  comb. 

I'xtax',  lamp  for  warming.  See  a'nux'. 

Ie'xtax',  whale  species.  See  hi'xtax'. 

Ka'dax ',  end,  top;  point  of  harpoons,  spears,  and 
arrows. 

Kadga'dax ',  a  stone  amulet  in  the  shape  of  a  man’s 
figure. 

*Ka'gucudax'.  See  qugcu'dax '. 

*Kala'gax',  large  simple  harpoon,  heavier  than  igi'qax'. 

Kasi’gum  takadu'ca,  bone  shovel  for  taking  of  reefs  of 
the  chiton  kasi'gux'. 

Kasi'gux',  chiton  ( Katharina  tunicata  Wood).  See 
qasu'gix'. 

Katmusim  cahadu'ci,  bone  shovel  for  putting  a  boot 
stretcher  into  footwear  for  drying  after  sewing. 
See  *kibta'sim  tahayu'ci. 

*Ka'xsix'.  See  ciyu'six '. 

Kayu'xtax ',  stone  sinker ;  stone  ball  of  a  bird  bolas 
(sanaga'  sin) . 

*Kibta'sim  tahayu'ci.  See  katmu'sim  tahaau'ci. 

Kixtu'gyax',  stone  drill-head.  See  qitqu'yax'  and  umu'- 
six'. 

Kula'max',  Pacific  right  whale  ( Balcena  siceboldii). 

Kuli’tax',  labret  of  stone  or  bone. 

*Kyux.  See  cu'sux'. 

Laku'dax',  fur  seal  ( Callorhinus  ursinus). 

Ma’yigax'.  See  hwa'yigax'. 

*Ma’ gyix' ,  a  small  man’s  knife. 

Nani’kax',  ancient  village  site  on  Attu  Island. 

Nu’gim  cidgayu’ ,  green  stone;  hornstone  schist  of  green 
color. 


Glossary  of  Aleut  Words. 


131 


Nu'gin  (plun.  of  nu' gix '),  prongs  of  a  bird-dart.  See 
cata'six'. 

Nux,  stone,  mineral. 

*Qa'bsax',  white  species  of  wild  duck.  See  cayu'sux ' 
and  sa'kux'. 

Qacagi'lux ',  bone  usually  having  the  shape  of  a  sea- 
otter,  which  is  fastened  to  the  side  of  the  skin  boat 
in  order  to  prevent  the  paddle  from  falling  when 
it  is  put  on  the  top  of  the  skin  boat. 

Qaci'kux' ,  species  of  small  killer  ( Somniasus  micro- 
cephalus). 

Qada'nix ',  bone  punch. 

Qa'hwax',  sea-lion  ( Eumetopias  Stelleri). 

Qaku'qix '  (Umnak  Island),  bone  back-scratcher.  See 
iblaga'six,  imlaga'six. 

Qalgu'yax ',  spear  with  a  stone  point. 

*Qama'  xtix' .  See  utu'qnux '. 

Qanaga' six ',  any  implement  for  fishing. 

*Qasu' gix' .  See  kasi'gux '. 

Qida'nax ',  a  kind  of  small  auk  ( Sinthliborrhamphus 
antiquus  Gm.).  See  sa'tax '. 

Qi'gix See  qix. 

Qi'gsix '.  See  ciyu'six'. 

Qi'lim  alucaya! nin,  needles  of  the  monster  qi'lix '  horse 
tail  ( Equisetum  nyemale  L.). 

Qi'lix ',  a  mythical  cannibal  monster. 

Qitqi' six'.  See  a'ngim  camtasl' . 

Qitqu'six ',  scraper  for  dressing  birdskins  and  guts  of 
sea  mammals.  See  capta'six '. 

Qitqu'yax '.  See  kixtu'gyax '. 

Qixma'dgux,  ornamental  circles. 

Qix,  bent  point  of  a  fishing-hook. 

Qugcu'dax',  edible  roots  of  Polygonum  viviparum  L. 
(See  ka'gucudax '.) 

*Qu'lgax'.  See  uluga'six'. 

Qulgu’yax ',  lance-point. 

Qu'max',  any  burial-place. 

Qusi'dax,  bone  pin  worn  in  a  perforation  of  the  nasal 
cartilage.  See  icimi'klux '  (in  Atka). 

Qu'xsux ',  small  bone  wedge.  See  una'qax ',  cagya' six' , 
and  an.gu'qax'. 

*Sagiyagu'six.  See  an'nax. 

Saki'tax,  arrie  (Uria  lomvia  arra  Pall,  and  Uria  troile, 
California). 

Sa'kux ',  duck  species  ( Somateria  v.  nigrum  Gray).  See 
cayu'sux *  and  *qa'bsax\ 

Sanaga'sin,  throwing-stone  balls  for  killing  birds 
( bolas ). 

Sa'qax,  bone  point  of  a  fishing-spear  called  aya'kux '. 

*Sa'tax.  See  qida'nax '. 

Sax,  a  species  of  Hexagrammus. 

Saxsi'dax,  bone  point  for  small  harpoons.  See  ka'dax '. 

Sayigim  agada'gan  kada' ,  point  of  a  bow-arrow.  See 
aga'dax '  and  ka'dax'. 

Sa'yigix',  bow. 

*Si'blux\  See  si'mlux'. 

Si' lax'.  See  axsila'six '. 

Si'mlux,  Pseuduria  columba  Pall.  See  si'blux. 

Sin,  ancient  village  site,  Attu  Island. 

Siti'knax ',  birch-bark. 

Ska'gix ',  piece  of  coarse  vesicular  andesitic  lava  for 
a  rude,  preliminary  polishing  of  stone  implements ; 
also  sna! gix. 

Slu'kax',  large  sea-gull  (Lams  glaucescens  Neum. ?). 


Sna' gix '.  See  ska'gix \ 

Snasim-iga' ,  stone  edge  or  small  ax  without  the  handle. 

Siiasix stone  adze  or  ax  with  the  wooden  or  bone 
handle. 

Su'klun,  snots;  pendants  to  qusi'dax bone  ornament  in 
the  nasal  cartilage. 

Su'tax,  a  part  of  a  hunter’s  clothing  while  in  skin  boat. 

Sxix,  Coitus  aleuticus  Gilb.  ?.  See  agu' gim-qd  and  sax. 

Ta'lin  (plural  from  ta'lix small  branch)  backward¬ 
looking  barbs  of  bone  heads. 

Ti'nix ',  small  harpoon  (Atka). 

Tuga' six',  stone  flaker. 

Tu'kux rich  man;  elder;  host;  official;  chief. 

Tu'mgax bone  foreshaft. 

Tu'mux *,  bone  ring  or  belt  which  keeps  the  joint  of  the 
shaft  and  foreshaft  or  head  of  throwing-weapons. 

Tunumu'lgux* ,  simple  harpoons  for  hunting  sea-otters 
and  fur-seals. 

Tu'tax ear-ring;  any  pendant  worn  in  perforations 
around  the  ear-shell. 

Ugalu'dax throwing-dart  for  drilling,  with  a  blunted 
head  without  a  point. 

*U ga'lux1 ,  kind  of  a  throwing-lance. 

Ugatna'xcax',  bowhead  whale  (Balcena  mysticetus) . 

Uka’mlux' ,  bone  ring  for  su'tax '  (which  see). 

Ulaga'max',  the  largest  earth-lodge  in  a  village,  usually 
that  of  the  chief. 

Ula'kax burial-lodge. 

U'lax' ,  dwelling,  house,  earth-lodge. 

Ulu'gam  cimitV,  cheek-stopper,  i.  e.,  labrets  worn  in 
the  cheek  perforations.  See  cimi'tix '  and  ulu'gax'. 

Uluga' six' ,  a  finch  species,  small  bird  (Leucosticte 
tephrocotis) .  See  qu'lgax\ 

Ulu'gax cheek. 

U'ma,  to  blow. 

Uma'lux small  bone-pipe  for  bladders  to  carry  fresh 
water  or  for  inflating  seal-skin  floats  for  harpoons. 

Umqi'dax',  andesite. 

Umqilg agu' six',  sinew  thread  for  attaching  the  bait  to 
a  fishing-hook. 

Umqisi'six1,  curved  carving-knife. 

*U mu' six'.  See  kixtu'gyax' . 

Umn-'xix,  part  of  the  compound  fishing-hook. 

Un.guqax'.  See  qu'xsux'. 

*U nuxsuli' max' ,  a  thong  tied  to  the  foreshaft  of  a 
simple  harpoon  u'nnix',  penis. 

U'tax,  thumb ;  bone  knife  for  taking  off  meat  from 
guts  before  dressing. 

Utu’qnux',  large  broad  knife  (man’s)  made  of  andesite 
or  slate. 

U'tux',  handle  of  a  flaker,  knife  or  adze. 

U'xcux',  Lunda  cirrhata. 

U'xtam  agiti'nin,  sinew  threads  by  which  the  bone  parts 
of  a  fishing-hook  are  tied. 

U'xtam  tutasl' ,  noose  made  of  an  urile’s  quill  and  tied 
to  a  bone  fishing-hook  for  attaching  the  bait.  See 
u'xtax'. 

U'xtax',  compound  bone  fishing-hook.  See  aqa'nax'. 

Uxtu'six,  lancet  for  bleeding,  of  andesitic  lava. 

Uya'nix',  andesitic  tuff. 

Ya'gax',  wood  (as  material). 

Y a' gam-nan  agu'six',  tool  for  working  in  wood.  See 
agu' six'. 


EXPLANATION 


Tungus  tribes 


Yakut 


"  '/y 


Chukchee 


Koryak 


Kamchadal 


Ainu  and 
Kurilians 


Eskimo 


Indian  tribes 


Yukaghlr  and 
Chuvantzy 


Routes  of  the  Author 


In  the  expedition 
of  Riaboushinsky 
1908- 19// 


In  the  expedition 
ofthie  American 
Museum  /90O-/9O2 


In  the  expedition 
of  Sib/ridkof  /894- 
/ 897 


skoye  Usive 


ishP-Kolymkk 

,  .  y  ;  .  -  * 


Verkhov; 


01/ 

M*etJrie 


\%fkliiie- 

/Koivmsk 


Fairlxoiak 

L-\'  NeVlx 


yuHori 


:]s6fne-^y^. 


1  rwid  i  •/ 
Bay 


St.  Lawrence 
v?  Island 


i  Oisli  i  pa  —  ~ 


invar 


:Fgv;£kh  a«  tj 

•  Wiaoe  M 


L  St.Matthew 


Nunivak  I 


SEA 


t  P  E  -1 . 

Setiankit.Vjilaut 


I  tin  car 


I’iojiiJ  V3li 


PRI8IL0F  IS. 
St. Paul  !. 
\\  St.George 


Kodiak  i 


nnekrnnchai  sk 


Khar  vast; 
Yilktoej 


COMMANDERS  IS 

Bering  !. 
t  .Copper 


El  O  T  S  K 
SEA 


^/Shumaghm  Is, 


Akuban 


Unimak  i 


Nikqlavt 


Unalaska  I 


FOUR  MOUNTAINS 


/  Attu  I 


Umnak  I 


Queen  Charlotte  IsY^, 


Atka  I 


Sakhalin  I 


B3  a  gave  binhcuski 


Vancouver  I 


Khabaroy 


1,000  miles  Co/i 


Fez o  I 


ETHNOGRAPHIC  MAP  OF  NORTHEASTERN  ASIA  AND  NORTHWESTERN  AMERICA. 


In  the  expedition 
of  R ' id  boush  insky 
1908- 19/ / 

In  the  expedition 
of  th/e  American 
Mu  seam  /900-/902 


in  the  expedition 
of  Sibir/akof  /894- 
/ 897 


EXPLANATION 


Tungus  tribes 


Yakut 


Chukchee 


Koryak 


■ 

Kamchadal 


G  i  ly  a  k 


Ainu  and 
Kuri  1 1  a  ns 


Eski  mo 


Pd? 

Aleut 


Yukagh Ir  and 
Chuvantzy 

Routes  of  the  Author 


Indian  tribes 


INDEX 


Acheulian  flint  weapons,  120 
period,  103 

Adax  Island,  102  , 

Adge,  stone,  120 

for  working  in  wood,  73 
found,  58,  59,  62 
Africa,  43,  119 
African  tribes,  knives  of,  77 
Agattu  Island,  57 

andesite  brought  from,  114 
cave  on,  122 

excavations  of  Dali  on,  102 
Age  of  village  sites,  30 

Agla'gax',  ancient  village  site,  Umnak  Island,  29,  89, 
105,  109,  1 18 

Aino,  skin-boat  unknown  to,  112 
tribe,  3 

Akutan  Pass,  13 

Alaska  Commercial  Company,  12,  13,  16,  17,  44 
Eskimo,  8 

cephalic  index  of,  115 
soapstone  as  material  for  lamps  of,  57. 
stone  lamps  of,  75 
Peninsula,  13,  15,  19,  57,  121,  123 
excavation  on,  102 
Territory,  geological  studies  in,  18 

Government  officials  in,  12 

route  of  steamer  Santa  Clara  to,  12 

volcanic  chain  in,  18 

Albatross  ( Diomedes  albatros  Pallas),  25,  47 
beak  of,  used  as  pincers,  54 
Aleut,  cephalic  index  of,  115,  116 
-Kamchatka  Expedition,  53 
lamps  of,  75 

language,  grammar  of,  115 

in  relation  to  Eskimo  dialects,  1 
study  of,  15 
medicine  men,  93 
problems,  3 

reason  for  investigation  of,  2 
theory  of  origin  of,  ill 
tribe,  3,  14 

village  sites,  excavations  of  ancient,  2 
woman  resting,  44 

weaving  basket,  44 
Aleutian  chain,  115 

Islands,  3,  15,  18 

accessibility  of,  11 

as  a  continuation  of  the  Alaskides, 
1 13 

future  investigation  on,  18 
journey  to  the,  II 
natural  features  of,  19 
traveling  in  the,  18 
period,  106 

Algonkin  Indians  as  a  division  of  Cro-Magnon,  9 
Alpine  mountains,  beauties  of,  12 
Ama'knax'  Island,  37,  38,  39,  46,  49,  52,  85,  87 
excavation  by  Dali  on,  102 
excavations  by  the  author  on,  37 
map  of,  37 
village,  37,  38 

Amchitka  Island,  excavations  by  Dali  on,  102 


Ameghino,  F.,  Professor,  124 

hypothesis  of,  5 

America,  Eskimo  in,  2 

natives  of  northwestern,  4 
people  in,  103 
Pleistocene  period  in,  6 
taken  for  India,  4 

American  and  Asiatic  races,  variety  in  type  of,  6 
Siberian  tribes,  3 
archaeologists,  70 
archaeology,  works  on,  69 
-Asiatic  tribes,  comparative  investigation 
of,  6 

Eskimo,  4 

Geographical  Society,  17 
Indians,  41 

Museum  of,  100 
iron  fish-hooks,  89 
kitchen  middens,  age  of,  117 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  v,  2,  11,  121 
officials,  14 
origin,  8 

population,  origin  of,  10 
race  and  Palae-Asiatic  tribes,  relation  be¬ 
tween,  10 

migration  from  Asia,  7 
origin  of,  4 

Revenue  Cutter  Service,  15 
scientific  institution,  assistance  from,  11 
Americanists,  International  Congress,  1 
Americanoid  tribes  of  Siberia,  7 
Americans,  14 
Amlia  Island,  28 

burial  cave  on,  122 
excavations  by  Dali  on,  102 

Amulets,  95 

Anderson,  J.,  author,  6,  124 
Andesite,  56  and  passim 

brought  from  Agatu,  114 
Anemones,  21 
Animal  decoration,  93 

Animals,  Asia  as  place  of  origin  of  domestic,  9 
Anthropological  Society  of  Washington,  116 
study,  9 

Antiquity  of  Aleut  kitchen  middens,  117 
Anuchin,  D.  N.,  professor,  124 
Applegate,  Captain,  14,  15,  17,  18 
Aquatic  animals  as  decorations,  93 
mammals,  passim 

Archaeological  investigations,  on  Aleutian  Islands,  fu¬ 
ture,  122 
problem,  21,  22 
Archaeologists,  American,  70 
Danish,  119 
European,  69,  72 
German,  119 

Archaeology,  American,  works  on,  69 

North  American,  by  Dixon,  123,  125 
writers  on  prehistoric,  55 
Arctic  or  hyperborean  races,  3 
region,  lamps  of,  76 
regions,  digging  difficult,  123 
Sea,  6 


133 


134 


Index. 


Arrow,  77 

bone,  28 
-head,  31,  89 

-heads  from  whales’  bones,  118 
Artamonoff,  Ivan,  Aleut,  122 
Aryan  Languages,  4 
Asia,  1 15 

as  place  of  origin  of  higher  civilization,  9 
High,  8 

immigrants  from,  4,  ill 
(Indo-China  and  Japan),  43 
natives  of  northeastern,  4 
Asian- American  bridge,  6 
Asiatic  and  American  races,  variety  in  type,  6 
Eskimo  lamps,  57 

origin  of  American  aborigines,  theory  of,  7 
peoples,  4 
Athapascans,  116 

Atka  Island,  15,  16,  17,  28,  44,  46,  89,  109 
excavations  on,  26 
map  of,  27 

merchandise  to,  once  a  year,  14 
people,  57 
skulls  on,  47 
temperature,  19 

Attu  Island,  15,  17,  23,  57,  89,  100,  102,  106,  109,  24 
andesite  on,  1 14 
bird-bones  on,  25 
bones  found  on,  25 
excavation  by  Dali  on,  102 
excavations  on,  24 
fish-bones  on, '25 
map  of,  24 

merchandise  to,  once  a  year,  14 
revenue  cutter  at,  16 
sea  otters  found  on,  25 
seals  on,  25 

Atxa’lax’,  26,  2 7,  29,  46,  47 

spear  found  at,  85 
Australian  boomerang,  77 
Awl,  bone,  28,  31,  84,  91,  92 
Ax,  iron,  33 

stone,  57,  58,  120 
Azilian  stage  in  Scotland,  6 

Back-scratcher,  bone,  89,  91 
Baeltz,  E.,  professor,  3,  124 
Baffin  Land,  Eskimo  of,  57 
Baranof  Island,  12 

Bartering,  soapstone  as  object  for,  57 
Basalt,  59 

Baskets  and  mats  made  of  grass,  46 
Beads,  glass,  33 

Beams,  jaws  and  bones  of  whales  served  as,  32 
Bear,  revenue  cutter,  at  Nazan  Bay,  17 
commander  of,  18 
Bears,  6 

hunting,  12 1 
Beaver,  117 

Becker,  G.  F.,  author,  1 13,  124 

Belt,  bone,  section  of  hunting  and  war  weapons,  55,  83 
of  hunters,  74 

Bending  of  bone  implements,  81 
Bering  Expedition,  17,  112 

Island,  distance  between  Kamchatka  and,  112 
Sea,  6,  9,  27,  30,  103,  123 
Eskimo,  91 
free  of  ice,  15 
patrol  fleet,  15,  16,  18 


Bering  Strait,  6,  8 

Eskimo,  100 
“  Bering’s  Voyages,”  17 
Bertholf,  Ellsworth  P.,  captain,  17,  18 
Besyazykov,  Boris,  Aleut,  71,  83,  89 
“Big  Land,”  name  of  the  Four  Volcanic  Islands,  111 
Billings,  J.,  traveler,  8,  127 

Binding  materials  for  harpoons  and  throwing  lances, 

,53 

Birch  bark,  89 
Bird-bones,  32,  36,  47 

on  Attu,  25 
-dart,  84,  85,  86 
decoration,  93 

Birket-Smith,  Kaj,  author,  124 
Bison,  6 

Blacksmith’s  art,  119 
Blades,  stone,  retouching,  71 
“  Blood-channels  ”  on  weapons,  81 
Blubber  of  sea-mammals,  109 
Blue-fox  farm,  40 
“  Blut-bzw.  Giftrinnen,”  82 
Boas,  Franz,  7,  8,  57,  81,  91,  116,  124 

data  of,  of  men  in  America  and  Siberia,  7 
harpoon  described  by,  54 
Boats,  primitive,  103 
Bodies  in  cave  on  Atka,  47 
Body-wrappings,  47 

Bogdanovich,  C.  I.,  Geologist  VI,  6,  114,  124 
Bogoras,  Waldemar,  author,  4,  7,  8,  41,  57,  124 
Bogoslof  Island,  16,  113 
Bolshanin,  Mr.,  custom-house  officer,  14 
Bone  arrows,  passim 

awl,  28,  31,  84,  91,  92 
back-scratcher,  89,  91 
belt,  54,  55,  83,  88 
club,  28,  87,  88 
flakes,  70 

at  Agla'gax',  71 
Nani'kax',  71 
Ukix,  71 

for  chipping  edges  of  stone  implements 
smooth,  70,  71 
found  on  Attu,  25 
hook  for  fishing-line,  simple,  87 
composite,  86,  87,  89,  122 
implements,  47,  77,  78,  93 

of  Siberians,  77 

knife,  79,  81 

labrets,  31,  96,  97,  98,  99,  100 
lamp,  31,  76 

mouthpiece  for  a  bladder,  90 
of  seal  floats,  91 
needle,  31,  91,  92 
picks,  82,  87,  121 
plugs  to  close  wounds,  81 
posts,  33 

ring,  54,  55,  83,  88 
scraper,  31 
wedges,  32,  90,  120 
Bones  of  birds,  32,  36 
fish,  32,  33,  36 
Boomerang,  Australian,  77 
Botanical  division,  1 
Boulders  for  breaking  echini  shells,  103 
Bow,  86,  120,  12 1 

of  Eskimo,  2,  121 
stringing,  121 

Bowers,  St.,  author,  87,  124 


Index. 


135 


Brachycephalic  head  index  of  the  Aleut,  116 
Brass,  pieces  of,  in  excavations,  33 
Brazil,  shell-heaps  in,  117 
Breech  cloth,  73 
Breeches,  99 

Bridge,  Land,  between  North  America  and  Eastern 
Asia,  113 

British  Columbia,  12 

Museum,  69,  124 
Bristol  Bay  lamps,  75 
Broca’s  measurement  of  skulls,  116 
Bronze  Age,  103,  119 
Brooks,  A.  H.,  geologist,  14 
Brown,  Stanley,  author,  14,  17,  114,  124 
Building  dwellings,  120 

Bulletins  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Geographical  So¬ 
ciety,  1 

Bumpus,  Dr.  H.  C.,  11 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  12 
Burial  cave  on  Amlia  Island,  122 
Atka,  48 
I'lax',  123 
Ka'gam-I'lam,  123 
Simichi  Island,  122 
Ulagan  Island,  123 

huts,  30 
pits,  26,  so,  52 
places  of  Aleut,  21,  33,  42 
rock  caves,  45,  46 
types,  45 
urn,  43 

Caches,  34 
Ca'lax',  25 

California  Academy  of  Sciences,  44,  102 
shell-heaps  in,  117 
shore-line,  117 

University  of,  visit  of  expedition  to,  12 
water-line,  117 
Cannibals,  102 
Canoes,  102 
Cape  Navarian,  115 
Captain  Bay,  37 
Carved  human  face,  94 
Carvings  of  Eskimo,  2 
Caserns,  dwellings,  32 
Cave  at  Kagam-Ilan,  89 
cemeteries,  46 
on  Attu,  46 

Caves  on  Kanaga  Island,  122 
Tanaga  Island,  122 
Celts,  stone,  57 
Cemeteries,  45,  48 
cave,  46 

Central  America,  high  cultures  of,  10 
Cephalic  index,  Aleut,  115 

'  of  Eskimo,  116 
Indians,  116 
Ceremonial  masks,  115 
Chairs,  use  of,  43 
Chamisso,  traveler,  57 
Charcoal,  109 

of  oaks,  1 17 
Cheeks,  holes  in,  96 
Chellean  period,  103 
Cherkashin,  Ivan,  Aleut,  33 
Chernofski,  village,  16 
Chess,  adopted  from  Russians,  43 
posture  in  playing,  43 
10 


Chichagof  Bay,  16,  24,  46 

arrival  of  vessel,  16,  24 
Chignick  Bay,  excavations  by  Dali  in,  102 
Child,  skeleton  of,  51 
Childhood,  piercing  of  lips  in,  99 
Children,  sleeping  places  for,  40 
Chipper,  bone,  69,  70. 

Chirikov,  Captain,  12 1 

report  of,  121 

Chisel,  stone,  62 

Christian  conception  of  death,  43 
Chuckchee  Peninsula,  lamps  on  the,  75 
Chukchee,  3,  8,  6,  57,  75 
pottery  of,  2 
tribe,  4 

Church  at  Unalaska,  14 
Chuvantzi,  tribe,  3 
Ciki'cax',  25 
Ci'knax',  25 
Cimka'yux',  25 

Circumpolar  elements  of  culture,  2 
Clay,  lamps  of  burned,  122 

unbaked,  lamp,  found  by  Dali,  122 

author,  28,  122 

vessels  and  lamps  of  burned,  of  Eskimo,  122 
Climatic  conditions  of  Aleutian  Islands,  19,  121 
Cloth,  fur,  47 
Clothing  of  dead,  42 
Club,  bone,  28,  87,  88 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  U.  S.,  101 
Coats,  water-proof,  47 
Cod,  25,  32,  33,  38,  47,  107,  108 
Coffins,  41 

Commander  Islands,  112,  114.  (See  Kommandorski 
Islands) 

Communication,  inland,  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  19 
Compartments  for  dead  in  dwellings,  49 
Composite  bone  fish-hooks,  86,  87,  89,  122 
Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  102 
Cooking-lodges,  40 

over  lamps,  122 

Copper  Island,  distance  between  Attu  and,  112 
Cormorants,  25 
Corpse,  arrangement,  42 
Corpses  kept  in  dwellings,  41 
mummified,  44 

Costume,  kayak-man’s,  99,  100,  122 
Cottoidae,  25 

Coxe,  William,  traveler,  124 
Crater  Islands,  30 
Craters,  44 

Cro-Magnon  race,  the  Algonkin  Indians  originated 
from,  9 

Cultural  and  physical  affinities  of  Northern  Palae- 
asiatics,  7 

connections  of  Aleut,  115 
Culture,  history  of,  110 

of  Central  America,  10 
Eskimo,  2 
Mexico,  10 
the  Aleut,  48,  119 

tribes  of  North  Pacific  Coast  of  North 
America,  2 

-periods,  Dali’s  characterization  of,  103 
periods  of,  102 
traits,  122 

Cumberland  Gulf,  Eskimo  of,  75 


136 


Index. 


Curio  hunters,  21 
Curvature  in  bone  implements,  82 
Curved  bone  implements,  77 
Cu'six',  25 

Custom-house  officer  at  Unalaska,  14 
Czaplicka,  M.  A.,  author,  3,  124 

Daggers,  grooves  on,  83 

Dali,  W.  H.,  8,  21,  38,  39,  43,  44,  45,  48,  49,  59,  75,  89, 
96,  98,  100,  101,  102,  103,  105,  106,  107, 
108,  IIO,  112,  XI4,  1 15,  1 17,  120,  122, 
123,  124 

calculations,  117 
conclusion,  by  author,  102 
description  of  strata,  38 
hypothesis,  103 
skeletons  found  by,  101 
theory  in  which  author  agrees,  113 
work  on  Aleutians,  21 
Dancing,  festivals,  houses  for,  34 
masks,  115 

Danish  archaeologists,  119 

“  Kjokkenmoddinger,”  108,  117 
shell-heaps,  1 17 
Dawkins,  Boyd  W.,  9,  125 
Dawson,  G.  M.,  6,  115,  125 
Dead,  clothing  of,  42 

disposal,  41,  42,  49,  115 
fear  of,  41 

infants  kept  by  mothers,  42 
interpretation  of  manner  of  fixing,  43 
lay  at  full  length,  101 
lying  on  backs,  43 
mode  of  burying,  41 
Death,  Christian  conception,  43 
Dechelette,  J.,  author,  55,  69,  125 
Decoration,  aquatic  animals  engraved,  93 
birds  engraved,  93 
figures  of  animals  engraved,  93 
of  implements,  93 
de  Mortillet,  M.,  author,  69 
Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  11,  15,  18 
Depths  as  given  by  Suvoroff,  112 
Devotions  of  relatives,  41 
Diet,  echini  as,  106 
fish  as,  33 
Digging  of  pits,  22 
Diluvial  animals,  114 

man  in  North  America,  5 
South  America,  5 
Dirks,  Mr.,  merchant,  14 
Disintegration  of  human  bones,  47 
Disposal  of  dead,  method,  41,  42,  43,  44 
Dixon,  Roland  B.,  author,  123,  125 
Dog-breeding  of  Eskimo,  2 

team  from  Valdez  to  Nome,  13 
Dogs,  driving,  122 

Dolichocephaly  of  Greenland  Eskimo,  116 

Dora,  mail  steamer,  12 

Dordogne,  race  of,  9 

Drill,  28,  100 

Driving  dogs,  122 

Duckworth,  W.  L.  H.,  author,  125 

Dutch  Harbor,  13,  14,  37 

Dwellings,  115 

ancient,  21 

building  of  underground,  120 
old,  40 


Dwellings,  repairing,  108 

underground,  23 
whale  bones  as  framework,  28 
Dyakonov,  Nikifor,  Aleut,  40 

Ear  ornaments,  96 
Ears,  holes  in,  96 
Earth  hut  of  Eskimo,  2 
in  Siberia,  2 
Echini,  34,  36,  104 

and  mollusks,  passim 
as  food,  106 
shells  of,  32,  35,  104 
Echinus  layer,  103 
period,  103 
tissues  of,  106 
Eider,  Pacific,  25 
Elk,  6 

Elliott,  Henry  W.,  author,  125 
Elymus,  wild  barley,  21 
Embalming,  manner  of,  42 
of  Aleut,  44 
England,  expedition  in,  11 
Eolithic  man,  a  conjecture,  113 
period,  103 

Eskimo,  3,  91,  115,  121,  123 

a  division  of  American  race,  8 
bone  spears,  81 
cephalic  index  of,  116 
culture  of,  2 

dialects,  Aleut  language  in  relation  to,  1 
in  Alaska,  8 

comparative  studies,  3 
America,  2 

Indians,  Palaeasiatics,  ethnological  connection 
between,  7 

journey  for  soapstone,  57 
lamps  of,  75 

southwestern,  76 

natives,  42 

migration  to  America  from  Siberia,  hypothe¬ 
sis,  8 

of  America,  in 
Baffin  Land,  57 
Bering  Sea,  91,  100 
Greenland,  8 
Labrador,  8 
origin  of,  9 

stock  to  which  Aleut  belong,  8 
Ethnographic  description  of  Aleutian  Islands,  19 
Ethnological  connection  between  Palaeasiatics,  Indians 
and  Eskimo,  7 

Division  of  the  Kamchatka  expedition, 
2,  11 

Rumianzev  Museum  in 
Moscow,  31 

Ethnology  Division  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum,  75 
Europe,  fossil  remains  of  man  in,  9 
immigrants  from,  4 
in  Pleistocene  period,  6 
kitchen  middens  in,  117 

passing  from  neolithic  period  to  Bronze  Age, 

103 

European  archaeologists,  69,  72 

countries,  shell  heaps  in,  117 
Europeans,  117 
Evans,  John,  author,  69,  125 
Evolution,  cradle  of,  9 


Index. 


137 


Excavation,  number  days  worked,  23 

of  ancient  Aleut  village  sites,  21 
pits,  22 

on  Ama'knax',  37 
Atka,  26 
Attu,  24 
Ukna'dax',  40 
Umnak,  29 
time  taken,  22 
Excavations,  number  of,  22 
Examination  of  sites,  22 
Expedition,  Aleut-Kamchatka,  53 
Island,  49 

organization  and  personnel,  I 
Explorers,  earlier,  in 
Eyes,  Mongoloid,  116 

Face  painting,  122 
-width,  116 

Facial  bones  of  Labrador  Eskimo,  116 
Fairbanks,  mines  of,  13 
Faralon,  freighter,  13 

wreck  of,  13 

Fat  in  soapstone  lamp,  57 
Felsite,  red,  59 

Festivals,  dancing,  houses  for,  34 
Fewkes,  J.  W.,  author,  125 
Field  work,  time  required,  22 
Finch,  rosy,  25 
Fir  trees  from  Sitka,  49 
Fire,  driftwood,  73 

-making  implements,  74 
use  of,  100,  103,  109 
Fish  bones,  32,  33,  34,  36 
on  Attu,  25 
for  diet,  33 
-bone  layer,  107 
-hook,  31 

composite,  86,  87,  89,  91,  122 
simple,  87 

sinkers,  still  in  use,  67 
spear,  82 

Fishing,  Kamchadal  methods  of,  2 

-line,  bone-hook  for,  87,  88,  89,  122 
period,  102,  103,  107,  110 
Fjords,  Scandinavian,  12 
Flaker,  bone,  69,  70,  71 
Florida,  shell-heaps  in,  117 
Flounder,  108 

Foley,  Daniel  P.,  senior  captain,  18 
Food  consumed  raw  or  roasted,  122 

cooking  vessels,  23  ^ 

echini  as,  106 
man’s,  on  the  plains,  107 
manner  of  securing,  107 
of  prehistoric  man,  108 
-storage  pit,  33 
Footwear,  73 

Fossil  bones  from  South  America,  5 

remains  of  ancient  man  in  Europe,  9 
Fossils,  Pleistocene,  not  found  on  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
1 14 

Fox  bones,  46 

farm,  blue-,  40 
Foxes,  hunting,  33,  46 
Foy,  W.,  German  ethnologist,  1 19,  125 
France,  shell-heaps  in,  117 

stone  implements  in,  69 


Freezing  and  thawing  of  ground,  123 
Fresh  water,  33 

fish,  not  in  Aleut  lakes,  114 
Fried  meat,  73 

Friedmann,  M.,  author,  5,  125 
Frying-pans,  28,  93,  109,  122 
Fur  clothing  of  Eskimo,  2,  47 

Geographical  Society,  Russian,  I 

Geological  basis  for  considering  the  Aleutian  Islands 
as  a  land  bridge,  113 
data  of  Alaska  and  Siberia,  6 
expedition  of  Professor  Jaggar,  18 
period,  of  sinking  of  the  sea-bottom,  114 
survey,  U.  S.,  14,  15 

Geology  division  of  the  Kamchatka  expedition,  1 
of  Aleutian  Islands  not  well  known,  113 
Geometric  ornamentation,  93 
German  archaeologists,  119 
Gidley,  J.  W.,  author,  6,  125 
Gilyak,  skin  boats  unknown  to,  112 
tribe,  3 
Glass  beads,  33 

Golder,  F.  A.,  author,  17,  121,  125 

Goltzef  Bay,  46 

Gordon,  G.  B.,  author,  125 

Gorodtzov,  W.  A.,  archeologist,  69,  125 

Government  elementary  school,  Unalaska,  14 

Grammar  of  Aleut  language,  115 

Grasses,  21,  46 

Gray,  N.,  Alaska  Commercial  Co.  agent,  13 
Greek  Catholic  Church  in  Unalaska,  14 
Greenland,  Eskimo  of,  8 

show  a  dolichocephalic  index, 
116 

lamps  of,  75 

Grewingk,  C.,  geologist,  113,  125 

Grinding  stone  implements,  72 

Grooves  on  swords,  daggers,  knives,  etc.,  83 

Grube,  W.,  author,  3,  125 

Guillemot,  25 

Gull,  Pacific,  25 

Haake,  F.  J.,  captain,  16,  18 
Fladdon,  A.  C.,  ethnologist,  6,  1 13, .125 

statement  of  Aleutian  Islands,  113 
Haiko  (Oncorhynchus  lagocephalus) ,  107 
Plala'ca  village,  26,  28,  29 
Halibut,  25,  32,  33,  38,  47,  89,  107 
Hammers,  stone,  68,  69,  102,  120 
Hani'kax',  a  shaman,  122 
Harman,  Mr.,  Unalaska,  14 
Harpoon,  115 

determination  of,  53 

heads  of  Magdalenian  epochs,  55 

of  Eskimo,  2 

simple  and  compound  or  toggle-headed,  53 
specimen  on  Umnak  Island,  54 
with  two  foreshafts,  54 
Flarris,  G.  D.,  author,  125 
Harvard  University,  Peabody  Museum,  121 
Hawaiian  Volcano  Observatory,  14 
Hawkes,  E.  W.,  author,  125 
Headpiece  for  a  drill,  100 
Heating  living  rooms,  35 
Hematite  worn  by  hunters  as  amulet,  59 
Henning,  Captain,  44,  45,  123 
Herring,  108 


138 


Index. 


Heye  Foundation  Museum,  121 
Heye,  G.  G.,  author,  87,  125 
Hiding-places  for  women  and  children,  34 
High  Asia,  8 
Hindustan,  43 

Hodge,  F.  W.,  ethnologist,  125 
Hoernes,  M.,  author,  55,  125 
Hoffman,  W.  J.,  author,  125 
Hog  Island,  40,  49 
Hogs  at  Ukna'dax',  40 
Hoikoh,  fish,  107 

Holmes,  W.  H.,  author,  12,  57,  69,  70,  125 
Holy  Russian  Synod,  13 
Hook,  fish,  31 

Hooks  for  catching  ice-blocks,  121 
Hornstone  schist,  57 

Horse-tail,  plant,  for  polishing  implements,  72,  77 
Hottentot,  tribe,  43 

Hough,  W.,  ethnologist,  57,  75,  76,  125 
Houses  for  festivals,  dancing,  34 
Hrdlicka,  A.,  arthropologist,  5,  10,  116,  125 
Hudson  Bay,  115 
Human  bones  disintegrated,  47 
face,  carved,  94 

figure,  symbolic  representation  of,  as  decora¬ 
tion,  93 

remains  in  kitchen  middens,  41 
Hunter’s  belt,  74 

clothes,  100 
Hunters,  23,  109 

lamps  used  by,  73 
primitive,  77 

\vear  hematite  as  amulet,  59 
Yukaghir,  77 

Hunting  aquatic  mammals,  121 
foxes  and  seals,  33,  46 
implements,  109 
land  animals,  121 
of  Aleut,  121 

period  of  Dali,  102,  103,  no 
sea  mammals,  91 

wild  reindeer,  bears,  and  land  animals,  121 
Hyperborean  or  Arctic  races,  3 

Ice-picks  as  spears,  79 

-pillars  in  cave  of  Goltzef  Bay,  46 
-scoops,  X2I 
-scraper,  121 

Icelandic  bridge,  remnant  of  former,  6 
Ilax,  burial  cave  on,  123 
Iliuliuk  Bay,  13,  37 
Immanuel,  Fr.,  author,  6,  125 

Immigration  of  Polynesians  in  southern  America,  6 
Implements,  47 

and  lamps,  polished,  120 
bent,  81 

decoration  of,  93 
development  of,  104 
for  fire-making,  74 
hunting,  109 
manufacture  of,  67 
of  wood,  53 
painting  of,  94 
pattern  of,  93 
serpentine  for  making,  59 
stone  and  bone,  122 
grinding,  72 
in  France,  69 


Tndex  of  age  of  village  sites,  21 

Indian,  Eskimo,  Palae-asiatics,  Ethnological  connection 
between,  7 

Museum  of  American,  v,  100,  121 
North  American,  41 
tribes,  cephalic  index  of,  116 
types,  1 16  ■ 

Indians,  115,  116,  122,  123 

and  Pake-asiatics,  mythologies  of,  7 
of  America,  mythologies  of,  2 
Tananah,  98 

Infants,  dead,  kept  by  mothers,  42 
Inostrantzev,  A.  A.,  geologist,  108,  125 
Inside  Passage,  trip  to  Alaska  through,  12 
International  Congress  of  Americanists  in  London,  1 
Interpreter,  Aleut,  18 
Inuit,  Yukon,  100 
Ireland,  shell-heaps  in,  117 
Iron  Age,  119 
ax,  33 

fish-hooks,  American,  89 
Negroes  of  Africa  knew  art  of  smelting,  119 
Ivan  Cherkashin,  Aleut,  33 
Ivanovsky,  A.,  anthropologist,  1,  116,  125 
Ivory,  89 

walrus  tusk,  77,  100 

Jacobs,  William,  senior  captain,  16,  17,  18 
Jaggar,  T.  A.,  Jr.,  geologist,  12,  14,  18,  113,  114,  125 
Japan,  in 

Japanese  junks,  Aleutian  islands  peopled  by,  112 
schooners,  116 
Jaw  of  whale,  28 

Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition,  2,  3,  4,  6,  9,  10 
Jochelson,  Waldemar,  7,  41,  42,  93,  126 
Mrs.  Waldemar,  v,  22 
Journey  to  the  Aleutians,  n 
Juneau,  passage  to,  12,  13 

Ka'gam-I'lan,  burial  cave  on,  123 
cave,  89 
Island,  17,  45 
mummies  in  cave  on,  123 
Kamchadal  lamps,  76 

methods  of  fishing,  2 
mythologies  of,  2 
skin  boats  unknown  to,  1 12 
tribe,  77,  in 
Kamchatka,  112,  114 

Expedition,  Ethnological  Division  of,  1,  2, 

3,  11 

volcanoes,  1 

Kamensky,  P.  P.,  sculptor,  31 

Kanaga  Island,  sites  and  burial  caves  on,  122 

Kayak,  man’s  costume,  122 

Keller,  K.,  author,  9,  126 

Keta  (Oncorhynchus  lagocephalus),  107 

Kettles  of  steatite  (soapstone),  57,  73 

Khoroshoff,  Peter,  Aleut,  123 

Khudyakoff,  Yegor,  Aleut,  122 

Killer’s  tooth,  71 

Killing  reindeer,  manner  of,  81 

Kitchen,  34 

middens,  21 

American,  117 
antiquity  of,  117 
human  remains  in,  41 
refuse  of  Aleut,  108 


Index. 


139 


Kixsin  Island,  48 
Klaprot,  traveler,  8 
Knife,  bone,  79,  81 

of  walrus  tusk,  79 
stone,  93 

Knipovich,  N.  M.,  Professor,  v,  99 
Knives,  39,  49 

grooves  on,  83 
of  African  tribes,  77 
polishing,  73 

stone,  61,  62,  63,  64,  65,  120 
woman’s  tailoring,  63,  64 

Knyrko,  O.  W.,  slides  for  testing  minerals,  made  by,  56 
Kodiak  Island,  13,  14,  121 
lamps, _  57,  75 

Kolyma,  Russian  military  transport,  18 
Komandorsky  Islands,  coloning,  in 
Komarov,  Wladimir  L.,  Professor,  v,  1,  126 
Kondratyeff,  W.  I.,  artist,  v 
Konrady,  S.  A.,  mining  engineer,  1 
Koryak  lamps,  76 
tribe,  2,  3 

Kotzebue,  O.,  traveler,  57,  126 
Krasheninnikoff,  H.,  author,  41,  118,  126 
Kremer,  Hans,  author,  9 
Kroeber,  A.  L.,  Professor,  12,  54,  126 

harpoon  described  by,  54 
Krug,  E.  W.,  mining  engineer,  1 
Kurilians,  tribe,  ill 
Kuzmin-Karavayef,  B.,  captain,  18 
Kyska  Island,  excavations  on,  102 

Labrador,  Eskimo  of,  8 
Labret,  bone,  31,  96,  9 7 

marble,  31,  57,  96,  97 
Labrets,  96,  97,  115,  122 
Ladoga  Sea,  108 
Lake,  salt-water,  39,  114 
Lamp,  28,  74,  122 
bone,  31,  76 
material,  soapstone,  57 
Lamps  and  implements,  polished,  120 
crescentic,  121 
for  light,  73 

warming,  73 
manufacture  of,  75 
of  Alaska,  75 
Aleut,  75 
Arctic  region,  76 
Asiatic  Eskimo,  57 
Bristol  Bay,  75 
burned  clay,  122 
Chukchee,  57,  75 
Eastern  Siberia,  75 
Greenland,  75 
Kamchadal,  76 
Kodiak,  57,  75 
Koryak,  76 
Mackenzie  River,  75 

Northern  Eskimo,  75  * 

Point  Barrow,  75 
St.  Lawrence  River,  75 
sandstone,  57 
unbaked  clay,  28,  122 
shaping,  75 
steatite  for,  57 

stone,  28,  31,  32,  35,  74,  75,  76 
and  bone,  73,  109 


Lamps,  type,  75 

used  by  hunters,  73 
wick,  73 

Lance,  throwing,  31,  83,  85 
war,  92 
Lancehead,  49 
Lances,  115 

Langsdorff,  von  G.  H.,  traveler,  126 
Language  of  Aleut  belongs  to  Eskimo  stock,  115 
Lastova  Bay,  23,  24,  105,  107 
Lathyrus  maritimus  (wild  pea),  21 
Laugerie  Haute,  France,  a  palaeolithic  station,  83 
Lava  andesitic,  56,  59 
rhyolitic,  59 

Leaders  of  expedition,  1 
Leather  thongs,  53 
Lee,  Captain,  14 

Lehmann-Nitsche,  R.,  author,  5,  126 

Lemon  juice,  106 

Leti,  schooner,  17 

Light,  lamps  for,  73 

Linguistic  connections  of  Aleut,  115 

Lip,  piercing  in  childhood,  98,  99 

Lips,  holes  in,  96 

perforation  of  adult,  99 
Listchuk,  P.  S.,  artist,  v 
Littoral  period  of  Dali,  102,  103,  106,  1 17 
Living  rooms,  heating,  35 
Louisiana,  shell-heaps  in,  117 
Lupins,  21 

Luschan,  Felix  von,  Professor,  9,  10,  119,  126 
Liitke,  Th.,  traveler,  126 
Lynx,  1 17 

MacCurdy,  G.  G.,  archeologist,  83,  108,  126 
Mackenzie  River,  lamps  of,  75 
Magdalenian  epoch,  harpoon  heads  of,  55 
period,  9 
Makushin  volcano,  57 

Malay-Mongolian-Caucasian,  origin  of  American  race,  4 
Mammoth,  from  Asia  to  America,  6 
tusk  on  St.  Paul  Island,  114 
tusks  and  teeth  found  on  Unalaska  in  1801, 
114 

Man,  migrated  from  Asia  to  America,  6 

pseudo-ancient  remains  in  South  America,  5 
Manufacture  of  bone  and  wooden  objects,  120 
implements,  67 
lamps,  75 

and  kettles  of  steatite,  57 
Mammalian  layer  of  Dali,  102,  103 
Map  of  Atka  Island,  27 

Ama'knax'  Island,  37 
Umnak  Island,  30 

Marble  as  material  for  artifacts,  26,  56,  57 
labrets,  31,  57,  96,  97 
Marguerites,  21 
Mason,  O.  T.,  author,  126 

harpoon  described  by,  54 

Masks,  47 

ceremonial  and  dancing,  115 
painted  wooden,  100 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  14 
Mats  and  baskets  made  of  grass,  46 
Meal,  echini,  sufficient  for  a,  106 
Meat,  fried,  73 
Medicine  men,  Aleut,  93 
Menton  caves,  palaeolithic  finds  in,  108 


140 


Index. 


Mershenin,  'Michael,  Aleut,  123 
Metal  vessels,  89 

Meteorological  condition  of  the  Aleutians,  19,  20 
division,  1 

Method  of  digging  by  author,  22 

fishing  of  Kamchadal,  2 
Northwestern  Indians,  2 

Methodist  Mission  Horne  for  boys  and  girls  in  Una- 
laska,  14 

Mexico,  high  cultures  of,  10 
Migration  from  Old  World  to  New,  9 

of  American  race  from  Asia,  7 
Eskimo,  8,  9 

Mineralogical  Museum  of  Academy  of  Sciences,  Petro- 
grad,  56 

Minerals,  determination  of,  by  Obrucheff,  v,  55 
slides  made  by  Knyrko,  56 
Miocene  period  of  Tertiary  age,  6 
Missionaries,  Russian,  41 
Mollusks,  25,  32,  34,  46,  47 

shell  heaps  of,  102 
Mongol  tribes  of  Asia,  10 
Mongolia,  remains  in,  10 

Mongolian-Malayan  races,  Indians  as  descendants  of,  4 
Mongolians,  116 
Mongoloid  eyes,  1 16 

traits  of  Eskimo,  8,  116 
Moorehead,  W.  K.,  author,  126 
Mortillet,  A.  de,  author,  69,  126 
Moscow,  Rumiantzeff  Museum,  26,  31,  50,  59 
Mousterian  flint  weapons,  120 
Mouthpiece,  bone,  of  seal  floats,  91,  99 
Mouthpieces,  ivory,  for  bladdered  harpoons,  95 
Mummies  on  Ka'gam-I'lan,  17,  45,  123 
Mummified  corpses,  44 

dead  suspended  in  caves,  45,  49 
Mummifying  of  dead,  method,  42,  43,  44 
Murdoch,  John,  author,  3,  54,  95,  96,  126 
Museum  of  American  Indian,  87,  100,  121,  125 
Musk-ox  6 

Muller,  F.  R.,  author,  3 

Mythologies  of  Indians  and  Palse-asiatics,  7 

Siberian  Koryak  and  Kamshadal  and 
Indians  of  America,  2 
Myths,  study  of  Aleut,  15 

Nani'kax',  bone  flakes  at,  71 
pits  at  23,  24 

village  site,  29,  50,  100,  109 
Nansen,  Fridtjof,  126 
Nasal  cartilage,  holes  in,  96,  98 
Nassonov,  N.  V.,  professor,  7 
Natural  features  of  Aleutian  Islands,  19 
Natxu'kax'  village  site,  57,  93 
Natykin  Bay,  40 
Nazan  Bay,  17,  27,  122 
Necklace  of  salmon  vertebrae,  108 
Needles,  bone,  31 

Negroes  of  Africa  knew  art  of  smelting  iron,  119 
Nelson,  E.  W.,  harpoon  described  by,  54 

traveler,  3,  54,  91,  95,  97,  100,  126 
Nelson,  N.  C.,  archaeologist,  126 
Neolithic  age,  72,  103,  120 

shell-heaps  in,  117 
period,  103,  108 

in  Scandinavia,  6 
Neo-Siberians,  3,  4 
Nerka  ( Oncorhynchus  lycaodon ),  108 


Net  sinkers,  no 

stone,  102 

Nets,  107 

New  World,  shells  heaps  in,  117 
New  York,  arrival  of  expedition,  11 

plans  for  transportation  made  in,  14 
Nikolskoye  village  on  Umnak  Island,  1 7,  29,  33,  35 
Nome,  in  winter,  reached  from  Valdez,  by  dog-teams,  13 
North  America,  Indians  of,  2 

no  remains  of  Tertiary  or  Diluvial 
man  have  been  discovered  in,  5 
American  archaeology  by  Dixon,  123 

Commercial  Company,  13,  14,  37 
Indian,  41 

Pacific  Coast  of  North  America,  culture  of 
tribes  of,  2 
Nose-pendants,  98,  99 
Nutxa'kax'  village  site,  29,  30,  33,  51 
Nyuman,  Mr.,  14 

Obermaier,  H.,  author,  55,  82,  127 
Obrucheff,  W.  A.,  professor,  v,  55,  56 
Observatory  of  the  Aleut  23 
Octopus,  catching,  106 
Okhotsk,  district,  17 
Old  World,  Stone  Age  of,  69 
Onkilon,  dwellers  of  the  Arctic,  8 
Ookhtomsky,  D.  E.,  ethnologist,  76,  127 
Orchids,  21 

Organization  and  personnel  of  the  expedition,  1 
Origin  of  Aleut,  theory,  in,  115 
Ornamentation,  geometric,  93,  121 
of  weapons,  92 
realistic,  121 
Ornaments  of  ear,  96 

Osborn,  Henry  Fairfield,  professor,  palaeontologist,  9, 
11,  127 

Ox,  wild,  1 17 

Pacific  eider,  25 
gull,  25 
Ocean,  12,  30 
Polynesians  in,  6 
right  whale,  39 
Pain,  B.  IT,  author,  125,  127 
Paint,  material,  59 

traces  of  red,  39 
Painting  of  face,  96,  122 

implements,  94 
skins,  no 
Paints,  use  of  115 
Palseasiatic  languages,  3 
tribes,  4,  8,  10 

culture  of,  2 
Palseasiatics,  in,  116 

and  Indians,  8 

cultural  and  physical  affinities,  7 
Indians  and  Eskimo,  ethnological  connec¬ 
tion,  7,  8 

investigation  by  the  Jesup  Expedition,  4 
physical  type,  7 
the  term,  3 

Palaeoethnologists,  107 
Palaeolithic  art,  108 

period,  42,  72,  108 

of  Western  Europe,  implements  of, 

55 

station  at  Laugerie  Haute,  France,  83 


Index. 


141 


Palaeo-Siberians,  3,  4 

Pallas,  P.  S.,  traveler,  112,  127 

Patagonia,  shell-heaps  in,  117 

Patkanoff,  S.  K.,  author,  111,  127 

Patrol  fleet  of  Bering  Sea,  15 

Pavloff,  P.  P.,  artist,  v 

Peabody  Museum,  v,  83,  121 

Penis  bone,  sea  otter’s,  as  flaker,  70,  71,  72,  78 

Perry,  revenue  cutter,  16,  18 

Personnel  and  organization  of  the  expedition,  1 

Peschel,  O.,  ethnologist,  3,  127 

Peshenkoff,  Yegor,  Aleut,  123 

Petrel,  25 

Petrified  shells  of  the  Tertiary  Period,  114 
Petrograd,  22,  56 
Petropavlovsk,  Kamchatka,  18 
Philadelphia,  University  Museum  of,  v,  121 
Physical  traits  of  Aleut,  116,  122 

the  Kamchadal,  2 
type  of  Palse-asiatics,  7 
Picks,  bone,  82,  121 
Pictographic  art  of  Eskimo,  2 

writing  of  Yukaghir,  2 

Pike,  108 

Pinart,  A.  L.,  ethnologist,  21,  iox,  127 
Pit  in  Hala'ca,  layers,  etc.,  29 
Pits  at  Agla'gax'  village,  32 
Nani’kax',  24 

Nutxa'kax',  contents,  etc.,  33 
Sin  village,  26 
Tanaxta'xax',  contents,  39 
Uglu'dax',  contents,  35 
U'kix',  contents,  etc.,  34 
Umnak,  contents,  32 
Xata'cxan,  contents,  38 
burial,  26 
digging,  22 

on  Umnak,  contents,  etc.,  30 
refuse  in,  33 

size  and  contents  of,  25,  26,  28,  33 
Plants,  Asia  as  place  of  origin  of  cultivation  of,  9 
Pleistocene  fossils  not  found  on  Aleutian  islands,  114 
period,  bones  belonging  to,  5 
of  Alaska,  6,  113 
Siberia,  6 

Pliocene  period  of  Tertiary  age,  6 
Plutonic  rocks,  113 
Point  Barrow,  Eskimo  of,  75 
lamps  of,  75 

Poison-channels  (Giftrinnen)  of  grooved  spears,  82 
Polished  knives,  73 

stone  implements  and  lamps,  120 
Polishing  implements  with  horse-tail,  72 
material,  59 

Polygenetic  theory  of  man’s  origin,  5 
Polynesia,  immigrants  from,  4 
Polynesians  in  Pacific,  6 

southern  America,  immigration  of,  6 
Population  of  Aleut  settlements,  119 
Porphyry,  kaoline,  57 
Port  Moller,  Alaska,  102,  123 
Portugal,  shell-heaps  in,  117 
Post,  bone,  33 

-Pliocene  period  of  Aleutian  Islands,  114 
Posture  in  playing  chess,  43 
of  dead,  101 
the  Aleut,  43 
Potatoes,  Aleut  plant,  35 


Pottery,  Aleut,  of  unbaked  clay,  28,  122 
Eskimo,  of  burned  clay,  122 
making,  loss  of,  89 
of  the  Chukchee,  2 
Prehistoric  man,  food  of,  108 
Preparations  for  the  journey,  11 
Pre- Russian  period,  115 
Preuss,  Th.,  ethnologist,  127 
Pribilof  Islands,  11,  13,  15,  18,  106 

Brown’s  statement  of,  114 
freight  for,  15 
lessees  of,  13 

Proceedings,  International  Congress  of  Americanists,  1 

Prokopyeff,  Philaret,  Aleut  chief  of  Attu,  74,  122 

Prosoff,  Michael,  Aleut  of  Attu,  122 

Pseudo-ancient  remains  of  man  in  South  America,  5 

Puffins,  25,  47 

Pulp  cavity  of  bone,  79,  83 

Pumice,  59 

Quaternary  period,  6 

Quinan,  Johnston  H.,  captain,  17,  18 

Radloff,  L.,  author,  3,  127 
Rafters,  whale-bones  as,  32 
Rafts,  102,  103 
Rau,  Charles,  author,  127 
Raven  beaks  as  amulets,  47 
mythical,  2 

Reasons  for  investigation  of  the  Aleut,  2 
Realistic  carvings  of  Eskimo,  2,  9 

Koryak,  2 

Recent  time,  separation  of  America  from  Asia  in,  6 
Red  felsite,  59 
ocher,  59 
Refuse  in  pits,  33 

of  ancient  habitations,  21 
Reindeer  appeared  in  America,  6 
breeding,  2 
hunting,  121 
killing  for  food,  81 
manner  of  killing,  81 
purchase  of,  at  Okhotsk,  17 
Religious  attitude  to  animals  hunted,  118 
concepts  of  the  Aleut,  41 
significance  of  hematite,  59 
Retouching  stone  blades,  71 

implements,  71 
Revenue  Cutter  Service,  17 
use  of,  15 

cutters,  assistance  of,  18 
at  Unalaska,  15 

Rhyolitic  lava,  59 
Riaboushinsky  Brothers,  v 

F.  P„  1,  53,  54 

Ring,  bone,  83 

Rink,  Mr.,  author,  8 

Rissov,  Nicholas,  priest,  14 

Riviere,  Mr.,  108 

Rock  caves  as  burial  places,  45 

structure  near  Bering  Strait,  6 
Rocks  of  Aleutian  Islands,  113 
plutonic,  1 13 
volcanic,  37 

Roe  of  echini  as  food,  106 

Rookeries  of  sea-mammals  as  hunting  places,  122 
Rooms  for  sleeping,  34 
Root-digger,  31 


142 


Index. 


Rosy  finch  ( Leucosticte  tephrocotis) ,  25 
Rotted  wood  as  indicative  of  age  of  burial  place,  52 
Rumiantzeff  Museum  in  Moscow,  26,  50,  59 
Russia,  visit  of  Captain  Bertholf  to,  17 
Russian  Academy  of  Sciences,  3 

ambassador  in  Washington,  11 
American  Company,  40 
conquerors,  119 
custom  of  burying,  41 
ethnologist,  Prince  Ookhtomsky,  76 
Geographical  Society,  1,  2,  11 
geologist  Inostrantzev,  108 
Home  for  Aleut  boys,  14 
influence  at  Sitka,  12 
on  Aleuts,  21 

of  head  measurements,  115 
invaders,  23,  no 
missionaries,  41 
priest,  Shayeshnikov,  13 
skeleton,  52 
Synod,  Holy,  13 
Russians,  73,  89,  109 

Aleut,  discovered  by,  in 

at  Agla'gax',  32 

chess  from,  43 

influence  the  Aleut  type,  116 

of  Yukon,  98 

on  Umnak,  30 

Saikoff,  P.,  Captain,  112 
St.  George  Island,  114 
St.  Lawrence  River,  lamps  of,  75 
St.  Paul  Island,  18,  40 

mammoth-tusk  found  on,  114 
St.  Vladimir,  ship,  the  visit  to  Aleutian  Islands,  112 
Salmon,  107,  108 

Aleut  lived  on,  in  summer,  118 
annual  spawning  migration,  23 
Salt-water  lake,  39 
Sama'lga  Island,  30,  57,  123 
Sandstone  lamps,  57 
San  Francisco,  13 

arrival  of  expedition  in,  11 
visit  to,  12 

San  Miguel  Island,  California,  87 
Sa'nnax',  excavations  by  Dali  on,  102 
Santa  Clara,  12 

passengers,  13 

Sarana  Bay,  Attu  Island,  7,  16,  23,  24,  107 
Sarytcheff,  G.,  traveler,  127 
Sauer,  Martin,  traveler,  127 
Scandinavia,  Neolithic  period,  6 
Scandinavian  fjords,  12 

navigators,  9 

Scientific  results  of  Ethnological  section  of  the  Ria- 
boushinsky  expedition  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Geo¬ 
graphical  Society,  etc.,  1 
Scharf,  R.  F.,  author,  6,  127 
Schiefner,  A.,  author,  3 
Schist,  57 

Science,  weekly  magazine,  7 
Scientific  members,  1 

work  in  Aleutians,  18 
Schloss,  Mr.,  12 
Schmidt,  Emil,  author,  127 

Peter  J.,  zoologist,  1 

School,  Government  elementary,  Unalaska,  14 


Scotland,  Azilian  stage  in,  6 
Schrenk,  Leopold  von,  3,  4,  8,  11,  127 
Schiefner,  A.,  author,  127 

Schroter,  Mr.,  manager  of  North  American  Commer¬ 
cial  Co.,  Dutch  harbor,  14 
Schwalbe,  G.,  author,  128 
Scraper,  bone,  for  dressing  guts,  31,  78 
Scrapers,  78,  no 
Scratcher,  back,  89,  91 
Sculpins,  107 
Sea-birds,  bones  of,  103 
depth  of,  1 14 
hunting  of  Eskimo,  2 
-lion,  47 

bones  of,  28 
tooth  of,  89,  93 
mammal  bones,  46 
mammals,  23,  25,  32,  34,  36,  38,  121 
hunting,  91 

-otter,  hunting  by  Captain  Applegate,  14 
-'otters,  15,  47 

on  Attu,  25 
-urchin  period,  103 

shells,  36,  104,  105,  106,  107 
-urchins,  25 
Seal,  28,  36 

at  Attu,  25 
-bones,  46 

fisheries,  studies  by  Suvoroff,  112 
-guts,  skirt  of,  100 
hunting,  46 
Seals,  47 

on  Attu,  25 
Seattle,  city,  12,  13,  18 
Sedge-grass,  19 
Seines,  107 

Semenov-Tyan-Shansky,  P.  P.,  president  Russian  Geo¬ 
graphical  Society,  I 
Semitic  languages,  4 
Sentry,  23 

Serpentine  for  making  implements,  57,  59 
Severtzoff,  M.,  zoologist,  7 
Seward,  Peninsula,  6,  13,  123 

village  on  Kenai  Peninsula,  12,  13 
Sewing  clothing,  no 
Shaft  straightner,  97 
Shark,  107 

Shayeshnikov,  Mr.,  13,  14 
Sheep  from  High  Asia  migrated  to  America,  7 
mountain,  6 
Shelagskoi,  Cape,  8 
Shelikhof  Strait,  13 
Shell-heap  period,  Aleut,  120 

-heaps  in  various  countries,  117 
depth  of,  102,  1 17,  1 18 
Shells  of  Litorina  period,  117 
sea-urchin,  36,  105 
Shepetin,  Mark,  Aleut,  30,  33 

Shipwrecks,  no  migrations  effected  by  accidental,  113 

Shirt,  water-proof,  100 

Shokalsky,  J.  M.,  Lieutenant-general,  1 

Shore-line  of  California,  117 

Shovel,  bone,  78,  88 

Shumagin  Islands,  excavations  by,  15,  102 
Siberia,  4,  41 

Cape  Navarin  in,  115 
geological  data  of,  6 
lamps  of  Eastern,  75 


Index. 


143 


Siberia,  northeastern,  diggings  in,  123 

tribes  of,  3 

remains  in,  10 

travel  of  Captain  Bertholf,  17 
Siberian  Americanoid  tribes,  reemigration  from  Amer¬ 
ica  to  Asia,  7 
and  American  tribes,  3 
bone  implements,  77 
spears,  81 
culture,  115 

Eskimo  show  a  mesocepnalic  index,  116 

Koryak,  mythologies  of,  2 

natives,  2,  42,  in 

reindeer,  17 

sheep,  8 

tribes,  89 

tundra,  19 

Sibiriakoff,  Innocent,  banker,  2 

Sick  people  warming  over  stone  lamps,  73 

Siguan  Island,  57 

Simichi  Island,  sites  and  burial  cave  on,  122 
Sin,  ancient  village,  Attu,  24,  26,  46 
Sinew  as  material  for  lines,  53 
Sinkers,  stone,  39,  66,  no 
Sitka,  fir  trees  from,  49 

former  capital  of  Russian- American  territory,  12 
Sivtzeff,  L.  I.,  assistant  priest,  vi 
Skeletal  remains,  29 

in  North  Amerika,  5 

Skeleton,  36,  38,  40 

found  by  Dali,  101 
fragment,  33 
in  Pit,  6,  26 
of  child,  51 
Russian,  52 
warriors,  52 
postures,  50 

Skeletons  found  in  large  pits,  49 
on  Atka,  48 

Skin  boats,  15,  22,  29,  45,  96,  115,  122 
of  Eskimo,  2 

unknown  to  Aino,  Gilyak,  and  Kamchadal, 
112 

-color,  116 

Skinner,  Alanson,  author,  127 
Skins  of  sea  mammals,  47 
Skirt  of  seal-guts,  100 
Skull  in  pit,  28 
Skulls,  dolichocephaly  of,  116 
excavated,  79,  115 
measurement  of,  115 
of  killed  sea  animal  thrown  into  sea,  118 
on  Atka,  47 

Virchow’s  measurement  of,  116 
Slate,  56,  57 

tailoring-knife  of,  62,  63,  64,  120 
Slates  found  on  Unalaska,  113 
Sledges,  122 
Sleeping-places,  46 

for  children,  40 
rooms,  34 

Small  Sitkin  island,  114 
Smith,  Harlan  I.,  archaeologist,  127 
Smoking  craters  still  found,  114 
Snegireff,  Leonty,  Aleut,  123 
Snow-beaters,  121 
goggles,  121 
knives,  121 


Snow-shoes,  121 

of  Eskimo,  2 
shovels,  121 

Soapstone  as  lamp  material,  57 
bartering  of,  57 
kettles,  73 

Social  organization  of  Eskimo  tribes,  2 

Palse-asiatics,  2 

Sollas,  W.  J.,  author,  6,  9,  112,  127 
Solovyov,  Unalaska  founded  by,  13 
Solutrian  flint  weapons,  120 
Somatical  connections  of  Aleut,  115 
South  America,  fossil  bones  from,  5 

pseudo-ancient  remains  of  man  in,  5 
remains  of  Tertiary  and  Diluvial 
man,  5 

South  Carolina,  43 
Spear,  77,  83 

Eskimo  bone,  81 
fishing,  31,  no 
found  at  Atxa'lax',  85 
Spears,  from  ice-picks,  79 
Spence,  Doctor,  Unalaska,  14 
Spiritual  culture  of  the  Kamchadal,  2 
traits  of  Aleut,  122 
Splitting  logs,  32,  37,  no,  120 
Squatting,  women  while  working,  43 
Steatite  for  lamps,  57 
Steensby,  H.  P.,  author,  112,  113,  127 
Stefansson,  V.,  traveler,  8,  127 
Stein,  F.,  author,  114,  127 
Steinmann,  G.,  author,  5,  127 
Steller,  G.  W.,  traveler,  127 
Sternberg,  L.  J.,  author,  112,  128 

Stomachs  or  bladders  of  reindeer,  seal,  white  whale,  or 
walrus  for  carrying  water  or  seal  oil,  91 
Stone  adzes,  58,  62,  72,  120 
Age,  21,  35,  109,  119 
objects,  120 
of  the  Old  World,  69 
man  in  Europe,  82 
and  bone  lamps,  109 
weapons,  43 
axes,  58,  72,  120 
blades,  retouching,  71 
disk,  65,  67 
drill  point,  67 
hammers,  102,  120 
implements,  47 

grinding,  72 
retouching,  69,  71 
polishing,  72,  73 
knives,  passim 

lamp,  31,  32,  35,  72,  73,  75,  76,  120 
lamps  carried  by  hunters,  48 
net-sinkers,  102 
tool  for  chipping,  31 
Stools,  use  of,  43 

Stoppers  for  bladders  and  stomachs,  91 
Storage  places  for  edible  roots,  35 
Strata,  Dali’s  description  of,  38,  no 

in  excavations,  27,  29,  31,  32,  34,  36,  38,  39,  40, 
48,  103,  105,  107,  108,  no,  117,  118 
Suess,  Ed.,  geologist,  19,  113,  128 
Superbrachycephalic  index,  Aleut  acquired  a,  116 
Surgery,  stone  implements  for,  60,  61 
Sushkin,  Peter  P.,  professor,  7 
Suvoroff,  Professor,  112,  128 
Swalbe,  G.,  author,  5,  128 


144 


Index. 


Swords,  grooves  on,  83 

Symbolical  ornamentations  on  implements,  93 

Tahoma,  revenue  cutter,  16,  17,  18 
Tailored  fur  clothing,  Eskimo,  2 

in  Siberia,  2 
Tailoring-knife,  slate,  62,  63,  64,  120 
Ta'naga  Island,  sites  and  burial  caves  on,  122 
Ta'nam-Anuna',  island,  m 
Tananah  Indians,  98 
Tanaxta'xax',  village  site,  37,  39,  49,  52 
Temperature,  mean,  on  the  Aleutians,  19,  20 
Tent-frame,  Yukaghir,  32 
Tents,  temporary,  of  hunters,  74 
Terpug,  fish  {H exagrammus) ,  25 
Tertiary  man  in  North  America,  5 
South  America,  5 
Period,  113 

Thalbitzer,  William,  traveler,  8,  128 
Thawing  and  freezing  of  ground,  123 
Thomas,  Cyrus,  author,  128 

Thread  used  in  fastening  hunting  implements,  53 
Throwing-board,  1 15,  121 
-darts,  122 

-lance  or  spear,  31,  53,  55,  60,  61,  94,  109 
-lances,  on  skeleton,  burial  of  a  warrior,  50 
still  in  use,  67 
weapons,  92,  93 

for  drilling,  93 

Tibet,  remains  of  a  more  ancient  population  in,  10 
Time  needed  to  form  strata  of  echini,  106 

required  for  field  work  by  the  author,  22 

to  form  mound  of  kitchen  refuse,  103 
Tlingit,  tribe,  116,  123 
Tool  for  chipping  stone,  31 
Transbaikalia,  Hrdlicka’s  travel  over,  10 
Transportation  at  Unalaska,  14 

without  animals,  22 
Traveling  in  Aleutian  Islands,  18 

Treasury  Department,  permission  to  travel  on  revenue 
cutters,  15 

Trees,  absence  of  growing,  59,  107,  120 
fir,  from  Sitka,  49 
Tsimshian,  Indians,  1x6 
Tufted  puffin,  25 
Turner,  L.  M.,  author,  54,  128 

harpoon  described  by,  54 
Turnips,  Aleut  plant,  35 

Types,  variety  in  of  Asiatics  and  American  races,  6 

Uglu'dax',  29,  35,  73,  89,  103 
fresh  water  at,  35 
pits  at,  contents,  35 
site,  51 

strata  of  pits  at,  36 
Uhle,  Max,  author,  128 
U'kix',  23,  29,  69 

bone  flakes  at,  71 
pits  at,  34 
site,  50 
village,  33,  49 
Ukna'dax',  hogs  at,  40 

Island,  excavations  on,  40 
site,  age  of,  40 

Ulagan  Island,  burial  cave  on,  123 
Umnak  Island,  15,  .16,  33,  47,  49,  50,  51,  57,  107,  121,  123 
arrival  at  18 
excavations  by  Dali,  102 


Umnak  Island,  fresh  water  on,  30 

harpoon  specimen  on,  54 
map  of,  30 

pits  on,  contents,  etc.,  30,  32 
temperature,  19 
travel  by  foot,  22 

Unalaska,  12,  13,  17,  18,  22,  37,  39,  41,  44,  123 
description  of  life  in,  13 
excavation  by  Dali,  102 
Harbor,  15 

mammoth  tusk  and  teeth  found  on,  in  1801, 
1 14 

population  of,  14 
reception  at,  13 
revenue  cutters  at,  16 
village,  clfief  of,  18 
Underground  dwellings,  23 
Unga  Island,  13,  iox 
Unimak  Pass,  115 

United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  21,  101 

Government,  permission  to  work  on 
Aleutian  Islands,  11 
National  Museum,  44,  121 

Ethnological  Divi¬ 
sion,  75 

Signal  Service  recorder  at  Unalaska,  14 
Treasury  Department,  application  for 
use  of  vessels,  11 

University  Museum  of  Philadelphia,  v,  121 
Ural-Altaic  group  of  languages,  3,  4 
-Altaians,  3 
Urile  quill,  89 
Uriles,  25,  47 
Urn  burial,  43 

Valdez,  village,  13 
Vessels,  metal,  89 

of  burned  clay,  Eskimo,  122 
Village  sites,  mode  of  examining,  22 
Villages,  location,  23 

on  open  isthmuses,  118 
Virchow,  Rudolf,  professor,  8,  116,  128 
Virchow’s  measurement  of  Eskimo  skulls,  116 
Vix,  author,  128 
Vladivostock,  18 

Vlassov,  W.  A.,  meteorologist,  1 
Volcanic  chain  in  Alaska,  18 

origin  of  Aleutians,  19 
rocks,  37 
tuff,  59 

Volcano  of  Makuskin,  13 
Volcanoes,  Kamchatka,  1 
von  Luschan,  Felix,  professor,  9,  10,  119,  126 

Wagner,  Miss,  mail  clerk,  14 

Walcott,  Charles  D.,  Secretary  of  Smithsonian  Insti¬ 
tution,  11 

Walrus  tusk,  ivory,  77,  100 
knife  of,  79 

War  lances,  80,  82,  85,  86,  92,  94,  95 
Wardle,  H.  Newell,  author,  128 
Warming  lamps,  73 
Warrior,  burial  of,  50 
Warriors,  Aleut,  28 

skeletons  of,  52 
Warshavsky,  A.  I.,  artist,  v 
Washing  skeletal  bones,  41 


Index. 


145 


Washington,  Anthropological  Society  of,  116 
visit  of  expedition  to,  n 
Water,  fresh,  33,  39 

at  Uglu'dax',  35 
on  Umnak,  30 
-line  of  California,  117 
-proof  shirt,  100 
Weapons,  53 

ornamentation  of,  92 
stone  and  bone,  passim 

Weather  conditions  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  23 
Weckerly,  C.  A.,  artist,  v 
Weather  Bureau,  U.  S.,  14 
Wedges,  bone,  32,  37,  no,  120 

Weniaminoff,  J.,  missionary  and  author,  37,  38,  46,  57, 
in,  114,  128 

finds  mammoth-tusk  on  St.  Paul 
Island,  1 14 

Weniaminoff ’s  grammar,  Aleut  language  in  the  light 
of,  1 

theory  of  the  Mongolian  origin  of  the 
Aleut,  in 

Whale,  25,  36,  38,  40,  103,  109 

bones,  32,  38,  47,  48,  So,  109 
as  posts,  no 

framework  of  dwellings,  28 
jaw,  28,  32,  40,  117,  120 
stone  carving,  31 
Whalers  at  Unalaska,  15 
Whetstone,  31,  49 
Wick  of  lamps,  73,  121 


Wild  barley  ( Elymus ),  21 
ox,  1 17 

pea  ( Lathyrus  maritimus) ,  21 
Wildcat,  1 17 
Wilson,  L.,  author,  128 

Thomas,  author,  69,  128 
Wissler,  Clark,  author,  n,  116,  128 
Women  did  not  accompany  hunters,  113 
Wood,  adze  for  working  in,  73 
Wooden  handles,  bone  flakers  fitted  with,  71 
implements,  53 
objects,  47 
Woody  Island,  121 
Wounds,  bone  plugs  to  close,  81 
Wrangel,  F.  von,  traveler,  8,  in,  128 
Writers  on  prehistoric  archaeology,  55 

Xata'cxan  village  site,  37,  38,  49 

Yachmemev,  A.  M.,  Aleut  chief,  vi,  18 

Yakut  expedition  of  1895,  2,  4 

Yale  University,  Peabody  Museum,  83 

Yarrow,  H.  C.,  author,  41,  128 

Yenissei  Ostyak,  3 

Yermiloff,  Cyril,  Aleut  chief,  123 

Yukaghir  hunters,  77 

tent- frame,  32 
tribe,  3,  41,  42,  93 
Yukon  Inuit,  100 
River,  13 
Russians  of,  98 


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